Pronouns курсовая работа

Pronouns . Местоимения в английском языке.

Слово, обозначающее предмет или признак предмета, но не называющее его, называется местоимением. Местоимения делятся на несколько групп, каждая из которых имеет свои собственные грамматические характеристики.

Pronouns many, few, a few, much, little, a little. Местоимения «много, мало, немного, несколько».

с неисчисляемыми существительными	с исчисляемыми существительными
much little a little	много мало немного несколько	many few a few
lot of- много

Reflexive pronouns. Возвратные местоимения.

Местоимения, оканчивающиеся на «— self (— selves во множественном числе)», называют возвратными. Возвратные местоимения показывают, что действие, называемое в предложении, направлено на лицо, которое его выполняет, следовательно возвратное местоимение должно быть по форме соотнесено с подлежащим.

I	-myself
you	-yourself
he	-himself
she	-herself
we	-ourselves
you	-yourselves
they	-themselves

Местоимения в английском языке

Автор:   •  Январь 28, 2019  •  Курсовая работа  •  6,571 Слов (27 Страниц)  •  2,814 Просмотры

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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

1.
THE
PRONOUN AS A PART OF SPEECH 5

2.
PERSONAL
(CENTRAL) PRONOUNS 7

3.
RECIPROCAL
PRONOUNS 27

4.
DEMONSTRATIVE
PRONOUNS 30

5.
INDEFINITE
PRONOUNS 36

6.
INTERROGATIVE/RELATIVE
PRONOUNS
72

Введение

Практическое
пособие по грамматике английского
языка предназначено для студентов I
курса специальности 1 – 02 03 06 – 01 –
“Английский язык” при изучении темы:
“Местоимения в современном английском
языке”. Пособие разделено на несколько
частей по разделам местоимений
соответственно, содержит глубокое и
подробное описание необходимого
грамматического материала по теме, то
есть описание случаев употребления
местоимений, и серию упражнений для
закрепления.

Практическое
пособие ставит своей целью обучение
грамматическим навыкам устной речи;
адресовано как для работы на занятиях,
так и для самостоятельной работы
студентов.

Все упражнения
имеют коммуникативную направленность,
сгруппированы по принципу «от простого
к сложному». При составлении данного
пособия авторы широко использовали
литературу по теме, изданную в последние
годы в СНГ и за рубежом.

1. The pronoun as a part of speech

1.1. INTRODUCTION

The
status of the pronoun in the system of the parts of speech is a
special one because some of the pronouns share the essential
properties of nouns (e.g. someone),
while
others have much in common with adjectives (e.g.
this).

The
meaning
of
pronouns is general and undetermined; their semantic interpretation
depends on context. Pronouns point to things without naming them.
This property is described as indication. Indication is considered
to be the semantic foundation of another basic feature of pronouns:
substitution. As substitutes, pronouns act as syntactic
representatives of other parts of speech, taking on their meaning in
context.

In
terms of form,
pronouns
fall into different types. Some of them are variable in form (e.g.
one
– one’s – ones), and
others are invariable (e.g. something,
which). Variable
pronouns express a number of grammatical categories. Some pronouns
have the category of number, singular and plural (e.g. this
– these), while
others do not (e.g. somebody):
some
have the category of case (e.g. she
– her, everybody –
everybody’s),
while
others have none.

In
terms of their word–building structure, pronouns can have a b a s
e form consisting of a plain stem (e.g. I.
either, any, etc.)
or a
d
e r i v a t i o n a l form, consisting of a stem and an affix (e.g.
theirs).
Two
pronouns have a composite structure (each
other, one another). There
are also compound pronouns, formed by putting together two stems
(e.g. everyone,
something, etc.).

Many
pronouns function
both
as determiners modifying a noun (This
dog
is mine; Which
dog
is yours?) and
as pronouns proper, or substantives, without any noun (This
is my dog; Which
of the dogs is yours?).
Others can be determiners only (Every
medal has two sides) or
substantives only (He
is at home).

There exist various
classifications of pronouns. In the present outline, pronouns will
be treated under the following headings.

Personal,
or central pronouns,
with the subgroups of:

a)
personal pronouns proper
(I, you, he, she, it, we, they),

b)
possessive pronouns (my,
your, his, her, its, our, their; mine, yours, his, hers, ours,
theirs),

c)
reflexive pronouns (myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves);

Demonstrative
pronouns
( this,
that, these, those);

Indefinite
pronouns,
with the subgroups of:

a)
indefinite pronouns proper(some,
any, no; somebody, anybody, nobody, someone, anyone, no one, none,
something, anything, nothing; one),

b)
distributive pronouns
(all, every, each, other, another, either, neither, both; everybody,
everyone, everything),

Reciprocal
pronouns
(each
other, one another),

Interrogative
pronouns,
which also function as relative
words
introducing phrases and clauses (who,
whose, what, which).

2. Personal (central) pronouns

2.1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
PROPER

In present–day English, the
personal pronouns do not form a morphologically unified system.
Besides, their classification is asymmetric in that each of the
three persons reveals its own set of grammatical and
lexico–grammatical distinctions

2.1.1.
First
person

The first person, in contrast to the two other persons, denotes an
active participant in the act of communication.

case	Singular	Plural
nominative	I	We
objective	Me	Us

I

The pronoun I (always
capitalized in writing) is used by the speaker/writer for
self–reference. When it occurs in coordinated groups, it usually
comes last (for reasons of politeness). A coordinated group
incorporating I and one or more other elements is perceived as
referring to the first person:

• You
and I
can make a deal, can’t we?

• My
daughter and I
are both invited, aren’t we?

USAGE NOTES

(a)
The pronoun I
combines with the plural form of the verb to
be in
contracted negative–interrogative structures and question tags:

• Aren’t
I
clever!

• I’m your wife, aren’t I?

(b)
I
is sometimes found in coordinated phrases in the function of object.
This is considered incorrect in formal usage, although some of the
educated speakers can be heard saying * «between
you and I».

(in)
Note
the variant use of personal and relative pronouns and verb forms in
cleft sentences.

• It
is
I
who
am responsible. [formal]

• It
is me
who’s responsible. [informal]

• It’s
me
that’s
responsible. [informal]

We

The
basic meaning of we
is
‘I
and
one or more others’:

• We
(= my
wife, my daughter and I) are moving house next week. Every
occurrence of we
has
a semantically dual nature, because it combines, by definition,
reference to two opposites: ‘I’
and ‘non–I’,
or
‘I’
and
«other(s)».
It
suggests that the speaker assumes authority to speak for others, as
the above example shows.

Linguists
distinguish between «inclusive we»
and
«exclusive we»,
depending
on whether or not we
includes
reference to the addressee. Compare:

• Shall
we
(= you
and I) go now?

• We
(=
Mary and I) are going out; would you like to join us?

The
only structures in which the «inclusive we» is
grammatically distinct are the question beginning with Shall
we …? and
the first person imperative (with the pronoun in the objective
case), possibly with the corresponding question tag:

• Let’s
(= Let us)
take
it easy for a while, shall we?

Besides,
there are a number of special uses of we,
both
inclusive and exclusive, determined by the semantic duality of this
pronoun:

1)
The
authorial we,
which
is found in academic writing:

(a)
the
inclusive authorial we:

• As
we
saw
in the previous chapter, Roman culture allotted a specific area to
each Muse.

(b)
the
exclusive authorial we:

• We
are
about to demonstrate how both these methods can be implemented.

The
writer seeks to involve the reader in a joint mental effort,
actually making a reference to the addressee (a) or to
himself/herself (b). However, the direct use of
you would
look too informal, and the use of
I, too
patronizing.

2)
The
editorial we,
suggesting
the idea of communality and found mostly in formal writing:

• We
hope
that our readers will take the matter seriously.

3)
The
rhetorical we.
meaning
‘the nation’, ‘the community’, ‘the party’:

• We
ought
to give top priority to social insurance.

4)
The
collective we,
indicating
a plurality of speakers/writers:

• We,
the
undersigned, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish
these aims.

5)
The
generic we.
making
a reference to contemporaries or people in general:

• We
live
in an age of information technology.

• Now
we
know
that certain food additives can cause cancer.

The
generic we
commonly
occurs in speaking about shared knowledge and behaviour.

6)
We
in
reference to the addressee,
sometimes found in talking to children and, typically, used by
doctors in talking to patients (although many people do not like
this use of
we):

• How
are we
(feeling)
today?

• Are
we
going
to drink our milk?

• Now,
we
must
be a brave girl, Dorothy, and stop crying.

A similar usage is found in
more formal contexts; for instance, it is peculiar to the speech of
a teacher who wishes to instruct without claiming authority:

• Now
we
are
going to translate a passage from Virgil.

7)
We
in reference
to a third person:

• We
are
in a bad mood today.

This use implies an ironic
attitude; such a phrase as this could be said by one employee to
another about the boss.

8)
The
«Royal we»,
traditionally
illustrated by the following utterance ascribed to Queen Victoria:

• We
are
not amused.

USAGE NOTE

Note
the idiomatic use of the pronoun we:

• Here
we
/ you are.
[= This is what’s needed]

• Here
we
go
again! [= Hello!]

• Here
we
go!
[= Let’s try; Let’s begin]

Us

The
form us
is
found in
of–phrases,
e.g. some
of us, none of us, many of us, etc.
Note the difference in meaning between the following
of–phrases
with numerals:

• Three
of us
went
to London (and the others stayed in Edinburgh). [~There were more
than three people in our company]

• The
three of us
we0nt
to London (together). [–There were three people in all]

The
same goes for the use of
you and
them.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
Us can
be used very informally in the function of indirect object instead
of we:

• Give
us
a
kiss, honey. [informal]

(b)
The form us
appears
in the coordinated attributive group them
and us: ‘a them
and us
attitude’.

2.1.2. Second person

The second person denotes a
passive participant in the act of communication.

Modern
English has one second person pronoun, you,
which
is unmarked for case and number, but combines with a plural verb.

You

The
pronoun you
can
have situational and generic reference. The
generic you
is
an informal equivalent of the formal generic pronoun one:

• You
never
know with fashions. [informal] / One
never
knows with fashions. [formal]

• You
can’t
be too careful these days. [informal] / One
can’t
be too careful these days. [formal]

In
using the generic you,
the
speaker refers to the addressee’s experience of life in general or
to a specific situation:

• It
was so still you
could
hear a pin drop.

Sometimes the speaker refers
to her/his own experiences, sharing them with the addressee:

• It’s
very easy to make chicken broth. First, you
cover
whole chicken with water, then you
add
seasoning and cook over slow fire.

• It
wasn’t a bad job after all You
came
to the office at nine, sorted «ml the mail and made a few phone
calls.

2.1.3. Third person

The third person denotes a non–participant in the act of
communication. The third person pronouns maintain the largest number
of grammatical and lexico–grammatical oppositions.

case	Singular	plural
animate (personal)	inanimate (non–personal)
nominative	he	she	It	they
objective	him	her	It	them

He

Like
all third person pronouns, he
can
have situational reference or anaphoric reference. In situational
reference, it refers to a male person. It can also be used to refer
to a male animal:

• Don’t
touch my dog – he
sometimes
bites.

Sometimes
the pronouns he
and
she
are
accompanied by an indefinite article to convey the meaning ‘male’
and ‘female’, respectively:

• Is
your cat a
he or a she!

He
used
as antecedent of an attributive relative limiting clause in
sentences normally beginning with He
who (or
He
that) has
a general meaning. This structure is often found in proverbs:

• He
who
laughs last laughs longest.

• He
laughs
best who laughs last.

• He
that
is born to be hanged shall never be drowned.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
In religious language, the pronoun He
(capitalized),
alongside Him
and
His,
is
used to refer to God:

• If
He
withholds
the waters, they dry up.

(b)
In poetic diction, the use of the pronouns he
(him, his) and
she
(her) can
serve the stylistic purpose of personification. He,
for
instance, is sometimes found in anaphoric reference to the sun or
death:

• Because
I could not stop for Death, he
kindly
stopped for me.

(c)
Pets and domestic animals can be called he
or
she
when
their sex is known to the speaker:

• I
unleashed the dog and let him
run
loose for a while.

When
wild animals are thought of as having a personality or feelings,
they can be referred to as he:

• Look
at that squirrel; isn’t he
a
clever fellow?

She
– Her

Apart
from the obvious reference to a female being, she
has
a number of specific uses.

(a)
Some people use she
(her) for
boats, cars, motorbikes, etc.:

• This
ship made her
maiden
voyage last June.

(b)
The names of countries as cultural units sometimes correlate with a
feminine pronoun, although it
is
more common in a neutral style:

• England
has always cultivated an admiration for her
poets.

(c)
She
is
increasingly used in anaphoric reference to a gender– neutral
noun:

• If
a child does not mix happily with her
peer
group, she
should
be given
special attention by the teacher.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
It is considered rather impolite in Britain to refer to the listener
as she
(or
he).
There
is an idiomatic expression to remind the speaker that the person’s
name should be used instead:

• «She
didn’t know.» – «Who’s
she
– the
cat’s mother?»
– «Sorry; Peggy didn’t know.»

However, pronouns should be
used to avoid repetition:

• Peggy
here says she
didn’t
know.

It

The
pronoun it
is
used to refer not only to inanimate objects, but also to non–count
substances, to singular abstract notions and singular collections of
people:

• If
you want a
thing
well done, do it
yourself.

• Love
is like the measles: we all have to go through with it.

• The
National Academy of Sciences
consists of ordinary and honorary members and foreign associates.
It renders
advisory services on scientific and technological matters related to
the national interest.

Besides,
it
can
co–refer to a whole clause or sentence:

• He
promised that
he would go straight.
but I didn’t believe it.

Furthermore,
it
(as
well as the possessive pronoun its)
can
be used in reference to living beings – animals and babies – if
their sex is unknown.

It
has
a number of functions. Syntactically, they can be subdivided into
two groups: the
referring it
and
the structural it.

1)
The
referring it,
like
all other pronouns, performs a syntactic function of its own. It
occurs in three variants:

(a)
The
substitutional
it,
which refers to a thing, idea, etc. already mentioned or implied by
the situation:

• «Where’s
my coat?» – «I gave it
to
charity last week.»

• I’m
afraid
it (= this
coat) is a size too large for me.

(b)
The
demonstrative
it,
which
is used to point to a person or thing:

• It
was
the largest house in the neighbourhood.

• It’s
the
postman!

The
demonstrative it
is
restricted to the subject position and generally followed by a
compound nominal predicate. It is not always interchangeable with
the demonstrative pronouns this
and
that,
for
the demonstrative it,
being
a third person central pronoun, serves to point to something which
is already in the focus of attention, whereas the demonstratives
serve to bring something into focus. Unlike this/that
the
demonstrative
it
is unstressed and, therefore, less prominent than the demonstratives
proper.

(c)
The
«impersonal» it,
which
refers to the situation, time, distance or atmospheric conditions:

• It
was
too dark in the room

• It’ll
soon be lunch–time

• Is
it
far
from here to the city centre?

• It
is
thawing.

The Russian equivalents of
these sentences, being impersonal, employ no subject pronoun.

The
«impersonal» it
is
restricted to the subject position.

2)
The
structural
it
is
a purely formal element anticipating a word, a phrase, a predicative
construction or a clause in the later part of the sentence. The
following subtypes of the structural (or formal)
it
can
be pointed out:

(a)
The
introductory it
(also
termed ‘preparatory’ or ‘anticipatory’), which anticipates, and
duplicates the function of, a syntactic unit in the later part of
the sentence:

• It
would
be useful to remember a few simple rules.

• It
pays
to be nice to your neighbours, doesn’t it?

• Will
it suit
you for me to arrive at midday?

• It
just
happened that his flight was delayed.

• It’s
no
use beating about the bush.

• Are
you finding it
difficult
to learn the new programming language?

• My
father doesn’t like it
when
the phone rings after 11 p.m.

The
introductory it
is
restricted to the positions of subject and object.

(b)
The
emphatic it
which
is used to give special prominence to a syntactic unit in the later
part of the sentence. Compare:

• John
found the treasure. ~ It
was
John who found the treasure.

• She’s
engaged to Peter,
not Mark! ~ It
is Peter she’s engaged to, not Mark!

• I
didn’t learn the truth until
I read her letter.
~ It
was
not until I read her letter that I learnt the truth.

• We
first met here.
~ It
was
here that we first met.

The
emphatic it
is
restricted to the subject position, although the part of the
corresponding non–emphatic sentence that receives special
prominence is not limited to a particular syntactic function.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
Note that the demonstrative it
normally
occurs in answers to the questions containing a singular
demonstrative pronoun:

• What’s
this/ that? –It’s
a sewing machine.

(b)
The pronoun it
is
usually unstressed. However, there are a number of special usages
where it
is
pronounced with a strong stress:

• She
has it.
[= charisma or sex appeal]

• You
are it.
[said in children’s games about the person who is next to play, or
about the most important person, esp. about the one who finds the
others who are hiding]

• That
steak was really it!
[= the best]

• Is
that it?
[a) = Is that all you wanted me for? b) = Is that (about) all?]

(c) Note
the idiomatic use of the pronoun it
in
numerous [informal] expressions:

• You’re
in for it.
[=
You’re
going to be in trouble]

• Take
it
easy.
[= Don’t worry; Relax; Take your time]

• How
goes it?
[= Is
everything happening satisfactorily?]

• I’ve
had it
[=
all
the experience that can be endured]; I’m going to quit.

• At
last we’ve made it!
[=
achieved
success]

• You’ll
have a hard time of
it. [=
You’ll find life difficult]

• Stick
it
out!
[= Hold out; Persevere]

They
–
Them

Like all
plural personal pronouns, they
can
have situational and generic reference. The generic they
is
used to refer to people in general (notably in the expression They
say) or
to the government, local authorities, legislature, or else to some
unknown groups and organizations that control the lives of ordinary
citizens:

• They
say
petrol prices are going to rise in the near future.

• They
are
building a new school in this area.

• They
don’t
publish any good novels nowadays.

They,
alongside
them
and
their,
can
have anaphoric reference to a singular collective noun, like
committee,
police, cattle, orchestra, etc.
Besides, the third person plurals they,
them(selves), their are
used to make anaphoric reference to an indefinite or negative
pronoun that can denote either a male or a female person:

• If
anybody
calls, tell them
I’m
out.

• No
one
objected to your proposal, did they?

USAGE NOTES

(a) Note
that the pronoun they
normally
occurs in answers to the questions containing a plural demonstrative
pronoun:

• Who
are these
/ those?
– They
are
fire fighters.

• What
are these
/ those?
– They
are
mangoes.

The
demonstratives serve to bring something into the focus of attention;
the personal pronoun they
serves
to speak about something that has already been brought into focus.

(b) In the
language of sports reporting, the teams are often denoted by the
names of countries they represent. This usage normally correlates
with they
(them, their) and
a plural verb:

• France
blame the defeat on their
coach.

2.2. PERSONAL POSSESSIVE
PRONOUNS

Possessive
pronouns show ownership or connection. In modern English, possessive
pronouns fall into two subclasses: determinative
(also
termed ‘attributive’) and independent
(also
termed ‘absolute’). Independent possessive pronouns function in
about the same way as the independent genitive of nouns.

subclass	first person	second person
singular	plural
determinative	my	our	your
independent	mine	ours	yours

subclass	third person
singular	plural
masc.	fem.	neut.
determinative	His	her	its	their
independent	His	hers	–	theirs

As the
terms show, determinative possessive pronouns are used as
determiners,
i.e. attributively, whereas independent possessive pronouns are used
as substantives,
i.e. in place of nouns or noun phrases.

Compare:

DETERMINATIVE	INDEPENDENT
• She recognized her suitcase. • Where’s your cousin? • That’s my bike. • Our car was the fastest.	• She recognized the suitcase as hers. • Where’s that cousin of yours? • Whose bike is this? – (It’s) mine. • Ours was the fastest car.

Unlike Russian, English uses
possessive pronouns to modify nouns denoting parts of the body,
personal belongings and the like:

• The
man stood frowning, his
hands
in his
pockets.

• She
wore a string of pearls round her
neck.

• I
sprained my
ankle
skiing in the mountains.

However, the definite article
is used in prepositional phrases associated with the object or, in
passive constructions, with the subject:

• The
woman took the boy by
the hand.

• He was
congratulated and slapped on
the back
as he was walking across the lawn.

The nominal element of a
gerundial construction can be expressed either by a possessive
pronoun or by the objective case of a personal pronoun:

• I don’t mind your / his /
their, etc. going alone.

• I don’t mind
you/him/them, etc. going alone.

• I insist on your /his/
their, etc. making a presentation.

• I insist on you
/him/them, etc. making a presentation.

A
possessive pronoun can be intensified by means of the adjective own:

• Malcolm
built this cottage with his
own
hands.

• I am
self–employed, my
own
boss.

• She
was thinking of selling her
very own
silver bracelet.

The
adjective own
also appears in the structure a/some…
of one’s own.

• She’s
never had a
car of
her own.

• It’s
about time you had some
money of
your own.

• «Would
you like to use my notes?» – «No, thanks, I can only
read from my
own.»

USAGE NOTES

(a) The
meaning of ownership or connection can be conveyed not only by
possessive pronouns and the genitive (i.e. possessive case) of
nouns, but also by the of–phrase.
Personal pronouns do not normally combine with of
(except,
of course, independent possessives in structures like a
friend of mine, that dog of yours). However,
there are a few set expressions which employ the combination «of
+ objective
case» with a genitive meaning, without resorting to possessive
pronouns

• On
the face of it,
it seemed worthwhile.

• She
couldn’t recall the address for the life of her.
[found
only in negative sentences]

• This
will be the
death of me!

• He’s a
dirty scoundrel! Nobody wants the
likes of him
around.

(b) The
second person independent possessive is used in the complimentary
closing of letters, where it can be modified by a conventional set
of adverbs: Yours;
Yours affectionately; Very truly yours, etc.
In business correspondence, the choice of the adverb modifying yours
is
determined by the salutation. If the salutation is Dear
Sirs, Dear Sir/Madam, Gentlemen, etc.,
the complimentary close will take the form Yours
faithfully or,
less commonly, Yours
truly. If
the correspondent is addressed by his/her name (e.g. Dear
Mr Murphy, Dear Ms Eastwood), the
complimentary close will take the form Yours
sincerely.

(c) Note the idiomatic use of
possessive pronouns:

• I
don’t see how he will manage on
his
own.
[a) = without help]

• The
elderly man lives on
his
own,
[b) = all alone)

• Performance
as an art medium has not yet come
into its
own.
[= achieved its proper recognition]

• I’ll
go
my
own way;
I did it my
way.

• She
was unable to hold
her
own
[= do as well as anyone else] and she had to quit.

• Oh,
my!
[used as interjection to express surprise, pleasure or dismay]

• You
scratch my
back,
and I’ll scratch yours.
[informal]

Ex. 1 Choose the correct
form of the personal pronoun:

1. Let (we, us) stop and have
a drink. 2. (He, Him) asked me to bring (they, them) a box of
chocolates. 3. There is a good piece of news for (they, them). 4.
Who will collect the books? – (I, Me) 5. Come with (she, her). 6.
They have never heard anything about (I, me). 7. Who will sign the
petition? – (I, Me) 8. It was (he, him) who collected the books.
9. Tom and (she, her) were working so long that thy missed their
train last night. 10. It was (he, him) who saw the explosion on the
other side of the street. 11. Who will bring a map? – (I, Me) 12.
(I, me) would like to learn Arabic. 13. When (I, me) go to England,
(I, me) don’t want to see (he, him). 14. Who can drive my car? –
(She, Her) 15. It is (he, him) who is always late.

Ex. 2 Choose the correct
form of the personal pronoun:

1. I have met everybody
except (she, her). 2. I have met everybody but (she, her). 3. Who
has read the book “The Moon and the Sixpence”? – (I, Me) 4. My
son is healthier then (we, us) both. 5. I hate such men as (he,
him). 6. There was nobody except (I, me) who could repair an
automatic washing-machine. 7. All but (he, him) managed to get to
the theatre. 8. Let (we, us) make an agreement, you and (I, me). 9.
I know English as well as (he, him) does. 10. Mary spends more money
on clothes than (he, him) does. 11. Mr. Brown wants to give his
collection of painting to such a girl as (she, her). 12. Tom studies
medicine as hard as (she, her). 13. You are more handsome than (we,
us) all. 14. Mr. Smith has more pots than (she. her). 15. Susan is
taller than (they, them) both.

Ex. 3 Insert the proper
form of the personal pronoun in brackets:

1.
I had turned and faced (he). He was taller than (I). 2.1
only mean I’m sorry the captain’s (I). 3. He’ll be between (you)
and (I), anyway. 4. It was (he) before whom she felt de­feat.
5. It was (she) who asked the next question. 6. It’s (they) whom
I pity desperately. 7. «She’s better at it than (we) are,»
said
Nora. 8. It was (I), not Martin, who had insisted on see­ing
(he) that night — because I wanted his support. 9. I re­called,
too, there had been some talk between Tom Wells and (she).
10. Now here you are, safe and sound. And you have your home
and Eliza and (he). 11. This is
(I)
who can help you.

Ex. 4 Choose the
appropriate form of the possessive pronoun:

1.I
went (my, mine) way, and she went (her, hers). 2. He left (her,
hers) with (their, theirs) child. 3. What was this exper­iment
of (your, yours)?4. He slipped (his) arm in (her, hers). 5. From
this point onward (their, theirs) story comes in two versions,
(my, mine) and (her, hers). 6. The Minister’s room was only
two doors from (my, mine). 7. «That thought is not (me, mine),»
he said to himself quickly. 8. Where’s (your, yours) seat?
I shall go to (my, mine). 9. Call me what you like. You have
chosen (your, yours) part, we have chosen (our, ours). 10.
His nature was harder than most of (their, theirs).

Ex. 5 Insert the missing
possessives:

1. Tell me, isn’t it …
mother? 2. This cat is … . 3. Mary has met … friend. Oh, no, he
isn’t … but her sister’s. 4. We have forgotten to bring …
tennis balls. Can we use … ? 5. Tom has given … favourite books
to Peter. 6. This is not … shoe, it must be … . 7. We have eaten
… lunch and she hasn’t eaten … . 8. What about an exchange?
You can have … and I can have … . 9. I’m sure that this is …
pen. But, where is … ? John told that … parents … and met at
the cinema last night. 11. Tell her not to bring … dog as it
doesn’t like … .

Ex. 6 Translate into
English.

a)
1. Он
кончил обедать и положил нож и вилку
на стол.
2. Она заглянула в свою комнату и быстро
вернулась
в его. 3. Она пошла в ванную комнату,
чтобы вымыть лицо
и руки. 4. Джек сел прямо и вытянул ноги.
5. Ральф покачал
головой и вышел из комнаты. 6. Доктор
поло­жил
руку на ее плечо. 7. Он знал, что мои
симпатии были на
его стороне. 8. Он был на два года старше
меня и моей подруги.

1. 1.
   Ее дядя был ректором университета. —
   И мой тоже.
   2. «Он, может быть, один из моих давнишних
   па­циентов»,
   — сказал Филипп. 3. У меня было странное
   чув­ство,
   когда мы говорили о его друзьях. 4. Это
   одна из моих
   соседок. 5. Сэм и Джейн очень преданы
   этому другу.
   6. Я полагаю, что я прав, думая, что он
   один из ваших
   учеников. 7. Его взгляд встретился с
   моим. 8. Вы прекрасно
   выглядите в своей форме. 9. Он сын моего
   старого
   друга. 10. Его английский звучал так же
   хоро­шо,
   как и их. 11. В те дни я редко видел своего
   школь­ного друга и стеснялся в его
   присутствии так же, как и он
   в моем. 12. Сегодня утром мне звонила по
   телефону одна
   из моих племянниц. 13. Том недавно получил
   пись­мо
   от школьного друга. 14. Ваша собака
   портит сад. На вашем
   месте я бы не держала собаку в саду.
   15. Вы принесли
   попугая! — Да, разве он не ваш? Майкл
   сказал мне,
   что он принадлежит вам. 16. Она посмотрела
   на него безразличными
   глазами. 17. Этот его взгляд был очень
   холодным
   и странным. 18. У него было такое же живое
   воображение, как у меня.

2. 1.
   Он посмотрел на Майкла своими добрыми
   гла­зами.
   2. Поехать за город в воскресенье было
   еще одной прекрасной
   идеей Тима. 3. Он был одним из двоюрод­ных
   братьев Джона. 4. Он говорит, что он один
   из ваших друзей
   или вы один из его друзей. 5. Он коллега
   моего отца.
   Я знаю его всю свою жизнь. 6. Он знал,
   что этот человек
   был одним из родственников отца,
   которого он давно не видел. 7. Они
   отдыхали в санатории на берегу Черного
   моря и встретили много друзей своих
   родителей.8.
   Он получил большое удовольствие от
   своих поездок в Крым.
   9. Он был одним из лучших учеников моей
   матери.
   10. Его речь была выслушана с большим
   вниманием. 11.
   Он никогда раньше не слышал об этом
   странном замужестве
   Элизы.

2.3. PERSONAL REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS

Reflexive
pronouns are formed by affixing –self (singular) or –selves
(plural) to the possessive pronouns in the first and the second
person and to the objective case forms in the third person.

Number	first person	second person	third person
animate (personal)	inanimate (non–personal)
		mascu line	feminine	neuter
Singular	myself	yourself	him- self	her-self	itself
plu ral	our- selves	your-selves	Themselves

There
is also the generalizing reflexive form oneself,
derived
from the indefinite pronoun one.

When a coordinated group is
involved, the reflexive conforms to the first person or, if there is
no first person pronoun, to the second person:

• You,
Andrew and I
must not delude ourselves.

• You
and Andrew
must not delude yourselves.

In
the
basic use, the
reflexive pronoun chiefly functions as object or predicative and is
co–referential with the subject of the sentence; in other words,
it has a syntactic function of its own.

• You‘ll
cut
yourself if you
are not careful.

• He
was not himself
‘that
morning.

In
the
emphatic use, the
reflexive pronoun is in apposition to its antecedent. Structurally,
it is not an indispensable sentence element. It is used as
emphasizer meaning ‘that person/thing and nobody/nothing else’:

• Did
you
make this pullover yourself?
/
Did
you
yourself
make
this pullover?

• I
shook hands with the
President
himself
yesterday!

• The
trouble is in the
engine
itself.

• I
myself
would
never talk to a stranger / I
would never talk to a stranger myself.

Note
the emphatic use of the expression in
itself.

• The
picture in
itself is worthless;
it is the frame that is extremely valuable.

The
obligatory use of
reflexives is found in preference to the objective case forms:

1)
after
reflexive verbs,
i.e. those that cannot be used (at least in a particular meaning)
without a reflexive pronoun:

to absent oneself from
smth

to demean oneself

to accustom oneself to
smth

to ingratiate oneself with
smb

to avail oneself of smth

to kill oneself with
(mirth, laughter, etc.)

to busy oneself

to content oneself with
smth

to perjure oneself

to revenge oneself (on
smb)

to concern oneself
about/over/with smth

to pride oneself on smth

• Trainees
who absent
themselves
from
more than two practices will be expelled. [formal]

• He
had to accustom
himself
to
the new working conditions [more usual: …to
get accustomed to…]

• You
should avail
yourself
of
every opportunity to improve your pronunciation.

• I
wouldn’t demean
myself
by taking
a bribe.

• Some
employees try to ingratiate
themselves
with
the boss, in hopes of bonuses or promotion.

• The
children are killing themselves
with
laughter – they’ve played a trick on the French master. [found
only in continuous tenses]

• If
you perjure
yourself,
you
will be severely punished.

Here
also belong idiomatic combinations of reflexive pronouns with a few
transitive verbs (e.g. to
enjoy, to find, to help, etc.)
and the verb to
be:

• We
found
ourselves
in
a thick forest.

• She
enjoyed
herself
immensely.

• Don’t
wait to be served, just help
yourselves.

• He is
not himself
this morning.

Similarly,
the link verbs to
feel
and to
look,
although not normally followed by reflexives (e.g. I
feel happy; She’s looking good tonight)
can combine with reflexives in idiomatic use:

• You’ll
soon feel
yourself
again when you have recovered from the injury, [informal; = feel
cheerful, well, and in one’s usual state of mind]

• Fiona
isn’t feeling
herself
today; she had a sleepless night. [informal]

• Is
something the matter, darling? You don’t look
yourself
[= seem in one’s usual state of health or spirits]

This use is often found in
negative sentences.

2) after
semi–reflexive verbs,
i.e. those after which the reflexive pronoun may be omitted with
little or no difference in meaning:

to acclimatize (oneself)
to smth

to identify (oneself) with
smb/smth

to adjust (oneself) to
smth

to prepare (oneself) for
smth

to hide (oneself)

to behave (oneself)

• He
always identified
(himself)
with
the Liberals.

• The
boys hid
(themselves)
in the attic.

• We
acclimatized
(ourselves)
quickly to the tropical climate.

• Now,
children, you ought to behave
(yourselves)
in the museum.

• I was
told to prepare
(myself)
for the worst.

Here also belongs the
optional use of the reflexive in:

• The
girl fainted, but she came
to (herself)
when we threw cold water on her face.

The verbs
to
dress, to shave and to wash
are only rarely followed by reflexives. Nevertheless, they are
sometimes classed with semi–reflexive verbs, because a reflexive
can be used if it is necessary to make it clear who does the action.

Compare:

• It’s
time to
dress
for dinner.

• Millie
is old enough to
dress herself
now.

The verb
to
feel
functions as semi–reflexive when it is followed by a complex
object:

• I
sometimes feel
(myself)
a
stranger
in my parents’ house.

• She
felt
(herself)
humiliated
by their offer.

3) after
non–reflexive verbs,
i.e. transitive verbs which may take a reflexive pronoun as object,
although they are not necessarily associated with reflexive
pronouns, such as to
accuse, to acquaint, to delude, to amuse, to get, to hurt, to
excuse, to persuade, to expose, etc.:

• He who
excuses
himself
accuses himself.
(Cf.
Excuse my
back; They
accused us
of
embezzlement.)

• The
lawyer acquainted
herself
with
the
facts of the case.

• The
children can hurt
themselves
playing
leapfrog.

• He got
himself
much
talked
about.

Moreover,
there are verbs that do not normally combine with a personal object,
such as to
apply, to express, to compose, to distance, etc.
(e.g. to
apply money towards a purchase, to express an opinion); however,
they can have a reflexive pronoun as object:

• Elliott
Templeton applied
himself
to
the task of making social connections.

• You
ought to compose
yourself
before
the Proficiency Examination.

• She
has distanced
herself
from
most
of her friends.

4) after
verbs with a «fixed» preposition,
i.e. one that has a close connection with the verb:

• She
had put on a new dress and stood looking
at
herself
in
the mirror.

• Don’t
worry, I can look
after
myself.

• We
didn’t know what
to do with
ourselves.

• Those
people take
too much upon
themselves.

Here also belongs the
obligatory use of reflexive pronouns after predicative groups with
«fixed» prepositions:

• She is
proud
of
herself.

• He was
beside himself
(with
rage).

• Bye–bye!
Take
care of yourself!

5) after
prepositional phrases which refer to an author,
who can also be his/her own model (in speaking of a work of art, a
story, a representation and the like):

• This
is a portrait of Van Dyck, by
himself.

• Whatever
Katherine Mansfield wrote about, she basically wrote about
herself.

• I
enclose a recent photo of
myself
with
this letter.

Note that after prepositions
of place we use an objective case form rather than a reflexive
pronoun:

• He
looked about
him
in
amazement.

• She
hasn’t got any money on
her
at
the moment.

• I
enjoy having my friends around/by/near
me.

Likewise,
a personal pronoun and not a reflexive is used after the preposition
with
meaning
‘to accompany’:

• You’ll
have to bring an interpreter with
you.

6) as
the nominal element of an absolute construction without a
participle,
when the construction is placed in initial position:

• Himself
an artist
of some renown,
the author says that old Russian icons have a unique vernacular
quality.

• Though
not the very happiest being in the world herself,
she
had found enough in her duties and her children to attach her to
life.

7) in
some idiomatic expressions:

• Remember
your table manners; don’t make
a pig of
yourself.

• Harry
made
a fool/an ass of
himself in
front
of the guests.

• The
house stands by itself.
[a)
=
alone; apart]

• She
likes to stroll (all) by herself.
[b)
= without company]

• Telling
children what to do is useless unless they can see
for themselves.
[=
use
one’s own judgement in forming and opinion, by experiencing or
examining the facts directly]

The
optional use
of reflexive pronouns means that they can be replaced by the
corresponding objective case forms or, in a more formal style and in
the relevant syntactic function, by the nominative case forms. This
use is found:

1) after
the prepositions like,
than, (as…) as, but (for), except (for), as for.

• As for
myself
/ me, I
prefer classical style in clothes.

• Mary
told me that everyone but herself/
but
she
[formal]/but
her
[informal]
had passed the test.

• His
sons are as tall as himself
/ as
he
(is)
[formal]/as him.
(informal]

2) after some spatial
prepositions:

• She
tiptoed out of the nursery, closing the door gently behind
her/herself
and wiping
her eyes.

• Wrapping
the towel around him/himself,
he
rushed to answer the phone.

3) when a reflexive pronoun
is coordinated with a noun:

• She
hasn’t written to my brother or myself/or
me
ever
since.

• His
nephew and himself
I and
he
[formal]/and
him
[informal]
are going to visit their relatives in Italy next summer.

4) when a reflexive occurs
alone in initial position as emphatic subject:

• Only
myself
sees that
inner rage in you now. [mannered or formal; notice the use of the
third–person verb]

USAGE NOTES

(a) When
the emphatic first–person reflexive myself
is placed
in initial or final position and punctuated, it means ‘as
for me’, ‘as far as I am concerned’:

• I
don’t approve of this practice, myself.

• Myself,
I
wouldn’t have noticed that error.

(b) The
popular abbreviation DIY
stands
for Do
It Yourself; it
is mostly used attributively: a
DIY book, a DIY kit, etc.

(c) Note the idiomatic use of
the reflexive.

• Now,
calm down. Pull
yourself
together.

Ex. 7 Point out the
reflexive and emphatic pronouns. State their functions. Translate
the sentences into Russian.

1.
Robert set himself four drawings per week. 2. Leidner himself is a
delightful fellow — so modest and unassuming. 3.
James himself had given him his first brief. 4. She had taught Holly
to speak French like herself. 5. There was a frame
and in it a photograph of herself as a little girl. 6. They
themselves
were longing to ask Soames how Irene would take the
result. 7. His eyes reconcentrated themselves quickly on the
button-hook. 8. I’ll see him myself tomorrow. 9. If June did
not like this, she could have an allowance and live by herself.
10. She wrote the words to those melodies herself. 11.
I thought to myself that it was always the same way. 12.1
thought what a pretty girl she was herself. 13. His friendship
with Michael, begun in hospital, had languished and
renewed itself suddenly.

Ex. 8 Insert the proper
self-pronoun:

1.
«Sit down, Peter,» she said, seating … in a chair
op­posite
him. 2. The boat was expected between the eighth and tenth
of August. I allowed … to sit gazing out to sea in the
hope that it would appear before time. 3. At two o’clock I
was cooling … in the lake. 4. The butler … opened the door,
and closing it softly, detained Soames on the inner mat. 5.
«By Jove!» thought Jolyon; «Soames…! What’s he up
to now?»
6. Timothy’s eyes left the fly, and levelled … on his visitor.
7. You even called … by your fancy real name. 8.
Her eyes were a book in … . 9. And since Scarlett had married
and moved into her own home, she had been gener­osity
… . 10. She opened to him … . 11. You can speak to him
… .

Ex. 9 Translate into
English:

1.
Я сама увижу его завтра. 2. Я могу вам
дать свою собственную фотографию. 3.
Затем ей самой захотелось что-то
сделать. 4. «Будет скандал», — пробормотал
Джеймс как
будто самому себе. 5. Она себя не понимала.
6. Если он
занят, я могу пойти на танцы одна. 7.
Вернись, мой мальчик, и закрой дверь.
Двери сами не закрываются, не правда
ли? 8. Вы можете слышать себя повсюду,
куда бы вы
ни поехали. 9. Он удивлялся самому себе.
10. Они пред­почитали
пить чай одни, а после чая играли в
шахматы. 11.
В тот вечер она была сама доброта. 12.
Были такие моменты,
когда ему было чрезвычайно жалко самого
себя. 13.
Им всегда нравилась песня «Катюша».
14. Он страш­но упрекал себя за свое
поведение в тот вечер. 15. Когда она
была готова, она посмотрела в зеркало.
16. Он взо­брался
на дерево и увидел квадратную вершину
горы. 17.
Он часто разговаривал сам с собой. 18. В
тот вечер они
должны были обедать одни. 19. Кофе был
готов. Она налила
себе чашку и села за стол.

3. Reciprocal pronouns

The
reciprocal pronouns in English are each
other and
one
another. They
both show that something is done mutually.

• We
spent the whole evening discussing the problem with each
other/one another.

However,
when two participants are involved, each
other seems
to be more common, while when there are more than two, one
another is
preferred:

• I
believe you two know each
other.

• Everybody
could see that Mary and John were absolutely taken with each
other.

• The
three sisters looked at one
another
and
burst out laughing.

Another
point of difference is that one
another is
more common when making a general statement and not talking about
particular people.

• The
translation of ‘separler’ is ‘to talk to one
another’.

Each
other and
one
another can
be freely used in the genitive case:

• My
parents have lived together for so long that they can easily read
each
other’s
mind.

• They
spent the short break comparing one
another’s
notes.

USAGE NOTE

Note the idiomatic use of the
reciprocal pronoun:

• Paul
and Janet were made
for each
other.
[=
very
well–suited romantically]

Ex.
10 Insert each
other or
one
another:

1.
The old couple looked at … . 2. They were red in the face and
found looking at … for a moment. 3. The rest of us looked
at… in amazement. He looked shrewdly at the three. 4.
Joan and Roy spoke to … only about the game. 5. For the next
three days neither Philip nor they spoke to … . 6. The two boys
faced … . 7. The two girls leant towards … and spoke
in tones audible to no one else. 8. In time, they were joined
by others — Olwen Kirby, Lesley Stevens, Jill Ballam. Nervously,
they grinned at … . 9. The two families don’t know
… . 10. The two stood gazing at … for a minute in silence.
11. And for a moment they all three stood silently looking
at … . 12. The twins looked at … glumly. 13. For a moment
nothing more was said. And then Simmon and Ralph suddenly
smiled at … . 14. These three ladies disliked and distrusted
… . 15. The twins, still sharing their identical grin,
jumped up and run round … . 16. They sat opposite …, as
they had so often sat before.

Ex. 11 Fill in the blanks
spaces with personal, possessive, reflexive or reciprocal pronouns:

1. Tom said … was … dog.
2. Mr. Clark has bought … new car … . 3. Mr. Tray and Mrs. Tray
haven’t seen … since last year. 4. Is this cow … ? 5. Look at
the ship, doesn’t … look dirty? 6. This child has cut .. finger
… . 7. I … want to paint … flat as soon as possible. 8. …
has never lost … money. 9. … have been out to get … a cup of
coffee. 10. Mary was listening to … when a telephone call
interrupted … conversation. 11. In this country … are often
late. 12. People shouldn’t cheat … . 13. This chair has lost …
legs. 14. Many people believe … to be honest. 15. Many a person
believes … to be talented.

Ex. 12 Fill in the blanks
spaces with personal, possessive, reflexive or reciprocal pronouns:

1. Try to repair …
tape-recorder … . 2. … must be … who cleaned the house. 3. …
doesn’t want to go to the USA with … brother. 4. Poland is a
populated country, … has over 40 mln inhabitants. 5. Do it … !
6. Who will marry Susan? – … . 7. I have forgotten …
handkerchief. Can you lend me … ? 8. Is it … mother? – No, it
is … . 9. Who will buy this silver box? – … . 10. That dog
looks as if … needed some walking. 11. Shall … stop and have a
talk? 12. William and George have exchanged … stamps. 13. This is
… painting I did … 14. Will ever Mary enjoy … ? 15. I …
wrote this nasty poem.

Ex. 13 Fill in the blanks
spaces with personal, possessive, reflexive or reciprocal pronouns:

1. … was five o’clock
when … woke up. 2. Do you think … is going to rain again? 3. …
is obvious that … are always late. 4. Do you see that animal in
front of … ? Tell … … name. Will you change … mind and marry
Susan? 6. When Robert discovered that he had been cheated , he was
beside … with fury. 7. My father and … never talk to … . 8.
Does … like watching TV? No, … hates … .9. Who is that man in
the corner? … is Dr. Brown. 10. Everybody except … liked the
film we watched yesterday. 11. You and I should always enjoy …
when we talk to … . 12. This is a friend of … . 13. … seems
that … is not able to learn any foreign languages properly. 14. I
understand … broke … leg several times; on the contrary, I have
never broken … . 15. Where is your dog? – … is in the garden.

Ex. 14 Fill in the blanks
spaces with personal, possessive, reflexive or reciprocal pronouns:

1. How long did … take …
to get to Birmingham? 2. … is certain that … plans to study law.
3. How tall is your child? – … is three feet tall. 4. Barbara
always keeps a good friend beside … . 5. Everybody usually has
illusions about … . 6. We have to look after … . 7. … seems
that … is going to snow all day long. 8. Every country has … own
traditions and customs. 9. We should keep these traditions and
customs to pass … on to … children. 10. … is obligatory to
attend Professor Gold’s lectures. 11. We should help … . 12. If
you have a daughter, … must look after … properly. 13. … is
clear whether … are allowed to participate in the election. 14. He
knows … own temper but she doesn’t know … . 15. … think of …
too often.

Ex.15
Correct any mistakes in the use of pronouns in the following
sentences. See the example:

1.
When her sister left home, Mary finally had a bedroom
all to her?
herself.
2.
OK. Let’s meet ourselves outside the disco at ten. 3. Did you do all
this by you or did someone help you? 4. We
were shown around the factory by the Chairman himself.
5. Some
of the people hurt itself trying to climb over the
fence. 6. You
should enclose a self-addressed envelope if you want
them to send the material back to yourself. 7. John
really prides himself on his Italian pronunciation
and no one has the heart to tell him 8. It’s
terrible! I
don’t really understand it myself but my wife does. 9. How
many other people from Bath went to the meeting
besides you? 10. Oh
come on, can’t you make ourselves a cup of tea? I haven’t
got time. 11. I’m
not surprised they’re splitting up, they never really
talked to themselves. 12. People
say that talking to yourself is the first sign of madness.13. Us
as parents can fully understand how you must have
felt. 14. We
are looking for a penfriend for each of ourselves. 15. They
arrived early in the morning and had the whole beach to them. 16.
Nicola
and Kim are so happy together, it’s as though they
were made for themselves.

4. Demonstrative pronouns

Like many
other pronouns, demonstratives are used as determiners in a noun
phrase (this
book) or
as pronouns proper, or substantives, without any noun immediately
after them (Is
this true?). Besides,
the pronoun that
can
be used to introduce subordinate clauses, in which case it is
referred to as a relative word, or relative pronoun (as in All
that
glitters is not gold).

Demonstratives are sufficient
by themselves to make a definite identification in a given
situation. Cf:

• I’d
like this/that
disc.
– I’d like this/that
(one).

• I’d
prefer this/that
wine.
– I’d prefer this/that
(kind).

• I’ll
take these/those
shoes.
– I’ll take these/those.

The plural
ones
is
possible after these
and
those
but
less usual than the singular one
is
after this
and
that.

Demonstrative pronouns
function deictically and anaphorically (back–pointing) or
cataphorically (forward pointing). In either case they may be called
pointer words because they refer by pointing to something in the
linguistic or extralinguistic context:

• I’m
under strict orders not to ever let anyone in this
house
without special permission, [deixis: situational reference]

• He
bought a battered, old black Buick in 1985. What a lot of pleasure
he got from that
vehicle,
[anaphora: contextual reference]

• Let’s
try it this
way.
You promise to find me the best attorney money can buy, and I’ll
tell you what I know of Suzie Reardon’s death, [cataphora:
contextual reference]

4.1. DEMONSTRATIVES
IN SITUATIONAL REFERENCE

The
general meaning of the demonstratives is usually stated as «near»
and «distant» reference: this/these
refers
to what is near to the speaker in space, time or conception and is
opposed to that/those
which
is used to represent whatever is farther away. Demonstratives can be
used to refer to anything from the farthest dimensions of the
universe (space/time) down to the here and now of the individual
circumstances:

• Just
look at this
kitten:
isn’t it cute?

• Will
you get me that
book
over there in the left–hand corner.

Nouns that
have already been mentioned in context can be dropped after
demonstratives which act as prop–words. Note that only that/those
are
possible in the following examples:

• This
poem is much better than that
written
by you last year.

• She
was surprised to know that the hotel was the same as that
they
had stayed at last year.

Note the
difference between the definite article and demonstratives. For
example, if the speaker asks someone to pass him «the box»
referring to some box in the immediate situation of utterance, this
presupposes that there is only one such object in the situation. But
«this
box» or
«that
box» need
not refer to some unique box in the situation; these expressions may
presuppose that there is a choice. The speaker could be pointing at
just one of several boxes, and it is important only that the hearer
should know which box is intended. Thus, the reference must be
unambiguous for the hearer, but not necessarily unique.

This
and
that
refer
equally to things and persons, ‘this
is’ being
especially used as a formula of introduction or identification:

• «Chuck,
this
is
Orlanda Ramos.» – «Pleased to meet you, ma’am!»

• This
is
Charles Banks, a friend of mine.

On the
telephone, British people use this
to
identify themselves and that
to
ask about the hearer’s identity:

• Hello.
This
is
Jim. Is that
Kerry?

Note that
only those
can
be used in personal reference, to mean ‘people’:

• Those
who
can, do. Those
who
can’t, teach.

• Much
harm has been done by those
who
mean well.

With nouns
referring to time, this/these
are
used for situations and experiences which are going on or just about
to start:

• He
practically lives in his office these
days.

• Why
don’t you conic to sec me this
Sunday?

• This
week
he hasn’t phoned cither of them.

• I’ll
see you one of
these days.

That/those
refer
to experiences which have just finished, or which are more distant
in the past:

• Remembering
that
terrible
night,
Kerry shook her head.

• Did
she have her own car that
evening?

• Is it
possible she gave him that picture of herself that
night?

That
can
also show that something has come to an end:

• … and
that’s
how
it happened.

• And
that’s
the
end of the news, [the close of a radio news bulletin]

«This
morning
/ afternoon / summer / winter», etc. can refer to a finished
period if one is speaking later the same day (or year):

• Fred
had to go to Moscow this
morning.

USAGE NOTES

(a) Note
the use of this
with
no demonstrative meaning in conversational story telling to
establish a new referent:

• I was
just turning the corner when this
girl
nearly bumped into me and …

• «What’s
wrong with Bill?» – «Oh, this
woman
that he went out with last night was nasty to him and – «

(b) In
spoken English this
and
that
are
often used with adjectives and adverbs in the meaning of ‘so’
as
an adverbial modifier of degree:

• If you
keep trying this
hard,
you’re sure to succeed.

• I
haven’t walked barefoot through hell this
long
to check out now.

• I
never thought she could be that
stupid!

(c)
That/those
can
occur in a formal style as relative antecedent followed by a ‘which
‘/’who ‘–clause
to mean ‘the
one(s)’:

• He
admired that
which
was rare and exquisite.

(d) Note
the idiomatic use of this
and
that:

• This
is
it. [a) = This is what you’ve been waiting for (used when
introducing or showing smth); b) = This is the crucial point: Well,
this
is it! It’s
now or never/I thought as I went into the interview room.]

• It
is/was that,
[used
to confirm and strengthen something that someone else has just said:
It’s
cold out, isn’t it? – It is that!]

• That’s
about
it. [= That is more or less everything.]

• That’s/This
is
how it is. [= This is the position; these are the facts (said after
an explanation)]

• He was
a thief, and a clever one at
that.
[=
in
addition]

• That’s
a
good boy/girl! [used to praise or encourage a child]

• I said
no, and that’s
that.
[=
it is permanently settled and need not be dealt with again]

4.2. DEMONSTRATIVES
IN DISCOURSE (DISCOURSE REFERENCE)

The
demonstratives this
and
that
often
function as signals marking the identity between what is being said
and what has been said before or is going to be said. They can be
either back–pointing or forward–pointing. In other words, they
point to something already mentioned, i.e., they refer back to
things that have been talked or written about earlier (anaphora), or
else they point to something to be mentioned later (cataphora). It
is generally admitted that this
tends
to refer to what is to follow and that
to
what precedes:

• Mr.
Morgan, this
is
terribly important. You should contact your agent as soon as
possible.

• I
can’t be his lawyer. Didn’t he tell you that!

This
and
that,
however,
can replace each other with practically no difference in meaning in
back–pointing, but this
is
more common in formal English:

• «Ma’am,
we are going to make a telephone application for a search warrant so
that we can search Mr. Arnott’s house and arrest him» – «I
can’t believe this,»
she
cried. «I just didn’t know.»

For
forward–pointing, only this
can
be used:

• Now
let’s get this
straight.
Are you saying she has deliberately lied to you?
This
and
that
are
claimed to be more emphatic than it
in
back–pointing as they seem to suggest that an important new fact
has been mentioned:

• From
what you tell me, Dad’s not going to win the case. Is that
right?

When the
speaker has more to say about the subject of discussion this
is
preferred:

• Mrs.
Hoover, I can’t tell you how much I appreciate this call. You do
know that if
this leads
to a conviction, there’s a substantial reward over one hundred
thousand dollars.

Ex. 16 Insert the
appropriate demonstrative pronouns:

1. … are my old worn shoes.
2. I’d like to buy … book. 3. How tall is … girl who is
standing on the far side of the hall? 4. I won’t tell you …
story about Uncle Tom as you repeated … story about Aunt Martha to
everybody. 5. … is my brother. 6. I hate … dog that always barks
in front of my house at six o’clock in the morning. 7. … are my
best friends. 8. I prefer … plan that you’ve just mentioned to …
one you wrote to me about last month. 9. I feel offended as you
didn’t keep … secret. 10. What are … ? They are jonquils.11. I
like … mountains we’ve just seen better then … we saw last
year. 12. I’m only fond of … sister who lives near me. 13. How
old are … boys who are playing football on the other side of the
fence. 14. I’m going to comment on … instruction as carefully as
I commented on … instruction on automatic washing-machines. 15. I
don’t need … clothes.

Ex. 17 Insert the
appropriate demonstrative pronouns:

1. … who would like to have
a cup of coffee, please raise their hands. 2. The mountains of
France are Higher than … of Poland. 3. I only buy … which are
fresh. 4. Can you imagine it? When I met … girl, I blushed and
couldn’t utter a single word. 5. Monsieur Dupont prefers … who
can speak French. 6. There must have been a car accident. If … is
so, we won’t manage to see Uncle Bill before his leave. 7. Listen
to … ! I will never learn transformational grammar! 8. Take …
awful dog of your away! 9. You know Mary occasionally speaks to …
boy. 10. Francis likes … who always come on time. 11. The sea of
Greece is warmer than … of Sweden. 12. I believe it’s already
five o’clock. If … is so, we won’t be let in. 13. Don’t show
me … ugly paintings of yours! 14. Listen to … ! Yesterday, a
pretty thief asked me to give him everything I had on me. 15. Mr.
Brown always admired … who could speak a foreign language.

Ex. 18
Change the words in
italics
into the double genitive form adding the demonstrative pronouns
before it:

1. This
must have been Tom’s
silly idea!
2. Please, don’t ask me to eat your
tasteless soup.
3. Where are Tom’s
new shoes?
4. Will you take my
trousers
to the laundry? 5. How do you like Susan’s
fashionable hat?
6. Why is your
car
so dirty? 7. Her
new radio
is often out of order. 8. Where did you put Ann’s
brown handbag?
9. I’m sorry, but I can’t listen to your
music.
10. Would you show me your
latest pictures?
11. Have you ever been to their
new flat?
12. Tom has patiently watched Mr.
Clark’s latest performance.
13. The
children’s school
is not far from their home. 14. Your
sisters
are very impolite. 15. Will you ever forget my
silly remarks?

Ex.
19 Translate into English. Pay attention to the use of the
dem­onstrative
pronouns:

1.
«У вас губы синие от ягод», — сказал
Ник. «И у вас тоже»,
— сказала Алиса. 2. В те первые августовские
дни у меня было мало дел на работе. 3.
Это очень большой роман. Боюсь, что за
два дня я его не прочитаю. 4. Он говорил
ей о своей работе в больнице, а она
рассказала ему,
что она делала в тот день в университете.
5. Это Майкл, а
не Мартин настаивал, чтобы мы встретились
в тот вечер. 6.
В тот день я болел и не был на занятиях.
7. Этот дом действительно в ужасном
состоянии. 8. В тот вечер Мар­тин
никому не отвечал на вопросы.

Ex.
20 Substitute that
or those for
the repeated noun:

1.
Their poetry was not the poetry of Milton and Byron and
Tennyson. 2. Scarlett’s eyes met the eyes of Grandma. 3.
The expression on his face was the expression of a crossed child,
intent on something that he has not got. 4. The trees in
our garden are taller than the trees in the park. 5. But the train
seemed to run twice as fast now, and its sound was almost
lost in the sound of Jon’s sighing. 6. Most people would
consider such a marriage as the marriage of Soames and
Irene quite fairly successful. 7. His eyes were melan­choly
as the eyes of a monkey. 8. His son saw him gravely hanging
up his coat, with an expression on his face like the expression of a
boy who intends to steal cherries. 9. The climate of Moscow is
better than the climate of St Peters­burg.
10. «Oh!» she said and the disappointment in her voice was
the disappointment of a child who opens a beautifully wrapped
package to find it empty.

5. Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns
constitute a heterogeneous class of words with several subclasses.

(1)
Indefinite
pronouns proper

a) some,
any, no

b)
somebody,
anybody, nobody, someone, anyone, no one, none, something, anything,
nothing

c) one

(2)
Distributive
pronouns

a) all,
every, each, other, another, either, neither, both

b)
everybody,
everyone, everything.

The subgroups of compound and
negative pronouns cut across these classes.

5.1. INDEFINITE
PRONOUNS PROPER

Some

Some is
invariable in form; it is used as a determiner and a substantive.

The
determiner some
occurs
with a singular countable noun to refer to an unknown or
unidentified person or thing.

• She’s
living in some
village
in Kent.

• Ask
some
experienced
person
to help you.

• Some
fool
has locked the door.

This structure can be used to
suggest that the speaker is not interested in somebody or something,
or that he does not think much of him/her/it:

• If you
think I want to spend the rest of my life doing some
boring
office job,
you’re mistaken.

The
combination of some

with a number suggests that the number is a high or impressive one:

• We
have travelled some
two
hundred miles
– only to find that he had already left the country.

The
determiner some
can
modify a plural count noun or an uncountable (mass) noun. It usually
expresses an indefinite number or amount when it is not important to
say exactly how many / how much the speaker has in mind; there is
often an additional meaning of indefinite quality.

• I’ll
bring you some
books
to read on your trip.

• Can
you give me some
lunch?

• I’d
like to listen to some
music.

With an
uncountable or plural noun, some
generally
suggests the idea of an indefinite (but not very large) quantity or
number. When the idea of a limited quantity or number is not
prominent, no determiner is used. Compare:

• We’ve
planted some
geraniums
in the garden, [a limited number]

• We’ve decided to plant
geraniums in front of the house this year instead of chrysanthemums,
[no idea of number is implied]

Some
may
acquire a more emphatic meaning to be used for contrast:

• I
enjoy some
music,
but not much of it.

• I’ve
got some
money,
but not enough to buy a new car.

• Some
people
are always late; others prefer to be punctual.

Some
can
be used as substantive, i.e. without a noun, to point back to a
previously mentioned noun group when the reference is clear:

• Dad
gave me a box of chocolates. Would you like some?

• Is
there any meat left in the fridge? – Yes, there is some.

Some
used
as substantive takes a plural verb:

• Some
think
that it is easy to be a parent.

• Some
agree
with us, and some
disagree.

Some is
often followed by an of–phrase
containing a personal pronoun or a definite noun phrase:

• Some
of
us
want to stay.

• I
couldn’t answer some
of
his questions.

• Some
of
these answers
are correct.

USAGE NOTES

(1) Note
the use of some
with
the noun time:

a) Some
time
means ‘a considerable amount of time’, ‘quite a lot of time’:

• I’m
afraid it’ll take some
time
to
fix your bike.

b)
Sometime
refers to an indefinite time, usually in the future; it often means
‘one day’:

• Let’s
have a party sometime
this
week.

c)
Sometimes
is an adverb of frequency; it means ‘on some occasion’, ‘more than
once’ (past, present or future):

• I
sometimes
wonder
why I have put up with you for so long!

(2) Note
the idiomatic use of some:

• Some
help
you’ve been, I must say – you’ve just sat there and done nothing
all afternoon! [a) = You are no kind of help at all; said in an
indignant or angry tone]

• That
was some
dancer!
That was some
game
you played! [b) = (person or thing) of a special or unusual type]

• We’ve
solved this problem to
some
extent.
[= partly]

Any

Any
functions
both as a determiner and a substantive. Like some,
any used
as determiner
can modify a plural countable noun or an uncountable noun to refer
to an indefinite quantity or number when it is not easy, or not
important, to say exactly how many/how much the speaker is thinking
about. While some
usually
occurs in affirmative sentences (positive statements), any
is
common in questions, negative sentences, conditional clauses and
other «non–assertive» contexts implying the idea of
uncertainty or negation:

• Did
you meet any
difficulties?

• Have
you bought any
new
clothes?

• If he
doesn’t find any
books
on this subject he won’t be able to write his paper.

• If you
have any
news,
let me know at once.

Any
alone
does not have a negative meaning; it is only negative when used with
not
or
after certain words with negative implication (never,
without, seldom, hardly, etc.)

Note that
not
any cannot
begin a sentence; no
is
used instead:

• No
boy
at school has ever been abroad yet.

In the
same way as some,
any with
an uncountable or plural noun usually suggests the idea of an
indefinite amount or quantity. When there is no idea of quantity or
number, no determiner is used. Compare:

• Is
there any
water
in the jug? [The interest is in the amount]

• Is
there water
on the Moon? [The interest is in the existence of water, not its
amount]

Any can
be used in positive statements implying the idea of free choice,
meaning ‘it doesn’t matter who/which/what’ and can modify countable
nouns singular and plural as well as mass nouns:

• Any
plan
would be better than no plan.

• Any
help
is welcome.

• Ask
any
doctor
– they’ll all tell you that alcohol is poison.

• You
can borrow any
books
from my library.

A noun is
often dropped after any
if
the reference is clear; any
is
then found in substantive
use:

• I’d
like some beer, please. – I’m sorry, there isn’t any
left.

Any can
be followed by an of–phrase
containing a personal pronoun or a definite noun phrase:

• I
don’t like any
of
the actors.

• You
are free to choose any
of
my books.

• Any
of
you
can do it.

Note that
either,
not
any,
is
used to talk about a choice between two alternatives:

• I can
write with either
hand.

The
expression at
all is
often used to emphasize the meaning of ‘(not) any’:

• She
doesn’t speak any
English
at all.

• Is
there any
difference
at all
between ‘small’ and ‘little’?

USAGE NOTES

(1) Note
the following uses of
any.

a) with comparatives:

• Can
you go any
faster?

• Are
you feeling any
better
now?

b) with
the adjective different:

• This
scheme isn’t any
different
from the previous one.

c) in ‘any
good’ / ‘any use’:

• Was
the book any
good?

(2) The verb can be singular
or plural in sentences like:

• If any
of
your friends comes/come
to see you, I’ll make some tea.

A plural verb is more common
in an informal style.

(3) The
comparative structure ‘as + adjective + as + any
(N)’
can express the same degree of quality or else a superior quality;
the latter meaning is usually made clear by the context. Compare:

• This
printer is as
good as any.
[=
of the same quality as (the) others; no worse than any other one]

• This
student is as
bright as any
in
her class; no wonder she has won a scholarship to go to Italy for a
year. [= superior to any other student]

(4) Note
the idiomatic use of any:

• I ate
at fast food restaurants any
number
of
times and never became ill. [= a sufficiently large number of smth]

• At
any
rate,
we met a few interesting people at that party. [= anyway; frequently
used to introduce a conclusion or a final statement]

• In
any
event/In
any
case.
I’ll be there by lunch time. [= no matter what happens]

5.2. COMPOUND
PRONOUNS

Some
and
any
form
the following compound pronouns (compounds): someone,
somebody, anyone and
anybody,
which
refer to people, and something,
anything, which
have non–personal reference.

5.2.1. The
use of ‘–one’, ‘–body’ and ‘–thing’ compounds

All the compound forms are
used as substantives:

• Hey,
somebody
say
something!

• As he
turned up the coat collar someone
brushed
against his elbow.

• Do not
attempt to communicate with anyone.

• He may
be anybody
–
a
mad millionaire – a crazy businessman – an escaped inmate of
Broadmoor.

• «He
looked at my pictures and didn’t say anything.

There
seems to be no significant difference between compounds with
‘–body’
and
compounds with ‘–one’.
The
forms with ‘–one’
are
more common; those with ‘–body’
are
a little more informal. Thus, in many contexts these pronouns are
interchangeable:

• Somebody/someone
told
me you’ve been to Africa.

• Has
anybody/anyone
got
anything to say?

• Everybody/everyone
over
18 now has a vote.

• There
was nobody/no
one
at
the office.

It should
be noted, however, that the compounds in ‘–one’
are,
as a rule, more individualizing: while somebody,
etc.
refer to persons collectively, someone,
etc.
refer to individuals. Another point of difference is that someone
prevails
when the fact/action is more important whereas somebody
occurs
when the stress is laid rather on the doer/agent.

Compare:

• It’s
awfully hot in here – someone
has
left the fire burning.

• Who
sent you these flowers? Somebody
very
rich?

Anything
and
something
are
invariable, whereas the compound forms with –body
and
–one
can
be used in the genitive case:

• Did
you take anybody’s
picture
at the ceremony?

• It
might be anyone’s
fault.

• He
pulled his cap down over his eyes and screened himself behind
somebody’s
shoulder.

The
compounds anyone
and
everyone
differ
from such word groups as any
one and
every
one, which
have a stress on one
referring
back to a countable noun that has been mentioned before:

• Give
me one of those pens –
any
one
will
do.

• There
aren’t any apples left –
you’ve eaten every
one. These
word groups are often followed by an of–phrase.

• He’s
written three books. Every
one of
them
is a page–turner.

The compounds can be
postmodified by adjectives, infinitives or adverbial expressions:

• There
was somebody
in
the room … somebody
all
wet and dripping.

• She
needed someone
to
confide in.

• I’d
like you to meet someone
decent,
get married and have children.

• I have
something
important
to tell you.

• Is
there anything
interesting
on TV tonight?

All of the
compounds formed by some,
any, every and
no
can
be postmodified by else;
all
compounds with personal reference in this case have the genitive
case with the apostrophe:

• But
someone
else
quarrelled with Sir Reuben, someone
else
left him that night white with rage.

• In the
morning I pretended to be surprised and horror–stricken, like
everyone
else.

• This
is someone
else’s
coat, I’m afraid.

Note also
the informal use of
much after
‘any–’
and
‘no–’
words:

• He
didn’t tell me anything
much
about it yesterday.

• There’s
nothing
much
on TV tonight.

USAGE NOTES

(a) When the compound pronoun
is used as subject, it occurs with a singular verb:

• Everyone
was
in the living–room.

• Somebody
has
made a good job of it.

• Does
anybody
want
tea?

• No
one
is
to leave the room.

(b)
Personal, reflexive and possessive pronouns referring back to the
compound pronouns somebody,
everybody, etc.,
can be either singular or plural:

• Everybody
took
care of himself. [more formal]

• Everybody
took
care of themselves. [less formal]

• Anyone
being
so foolhardy as to interfere in such affairs places himself
in a very delicate position. [more formal]

• There’s
somebody
on
the telephone. –
Tell them
I’m busy. [less formal]

In formal
English, the tendency is to use he
(his) when
the sex is not stated:

• Everyone
thinks
he has the answer.

• Everyone
to
his
taste, [a proverb]

Other ways of back reference
are also possible:

• By
that time everyone
in
the household had told his
or her
story.

• Everybody
in
the room promptly stopped what he
or she
was doing and stared at him.

(c) Note
the idiomatic use of
something, anything and
anyone:

• I
thought jobs here were supposed to be well–paid or
something!
[used
when the speaker disagrees with or does not fully believe the
meaning of a particular word]

• I
think he’s studying sociology or
something
(like
it)
at the university. [used when the speaker is unsure of what is said]

• Go on,
say
something
– we
can’t just sit here with everyone looking at us expectantly. [= say
a few words; make a short speech]

• You
know something?
I’ve
never told you this before, but this is my second marriage. [used to
introduce something that the speaker thinks important]

• He is
something of a
hermit. [= resembles a…; is, in a way, a…]

• I hope
to see something
of
you when you come to London. [= to see you a couple of times]

• He’s
anything
but
handsome. [= far from (it); just the opposite (of)]

• She
isn’t
anything
like
as nice as her sister. [ = not at all near; not to any extent]

• She’s
as busy as anything,
with
a new baby, a job, and a house to run! [= very]

• If
anything,
this
glass has more in it than that one. [a) = if there is any
difference; b) = on the contrary]

• He ran
like
anything
down
the street. [= very fast; very much]

• If you
want to ring me or
anything.
I’ll
be at the office all day. [used to introduce other indefinite
possibilities as suggestions, not for a specific purpose]

• It’s
anyone’s
game
(or
race).
[= the game (or
race)
can be won by any of the competitors]

• It’s
anyone’s
guess.
[= it’s difficult to predict; there is no certain way of knowing]

5.2.2. The
use of ‘some–’ and ‘any–’ compounds in different contexts

Some
and
any,
as
well as their compound forms, tend to occur in different grammatical
contexts.

‘Some–’
words
are usual in positive statements and thus can be called assertive
forms. ‘Any–’
words,
unless they imply the idea of free choice, do not normally occur
outside negative and interrogative sentences or conditional clauses.
Basically, the distribution of ‘some–’
and
‘any–’
compounds can be shown as follows:

Sub class	“Some–” words	‘Any’–words
positive state-ments	negative statements	questions
Determina tive	– They’ve had some tea. – She’s got some friends	– They haven’t had any tea. – She hasn’t got any friends.	– Have they any tea? – Has she got any friends?
Sub- stan- tive	– There’s something in the box. – He was rude to somebody.	– There isn’t anything in the box. – He wasn’t rude to anybody.	– Is there anything in the box? – Was he rude to anybody?

However, a
few additional points should be made on the use of ‘some–’
and
‘any–’
words
in various grammatical contexts.

a)
Interrogative sentences.
Questions mainly have neutral polarity, i.e. they leave open whether
the answer is positive or negative. ‘Any–’
words
are generally used in questions if the answer is completely open:

• Is
there any
milk
in the bottle?

• Have
you got any
questions?

• Will
there be anyone
at
the club so early?

• Is
there anybody
at
home?

• Is
there anything
you’d
like to know about him?

On the other hand, a question
may be presented in a form which is biased towards a positive or
negative answer. Negative orientation is found in questions which
contain a negative form of one kind or another:

• Does
no
one believe
me?

• Doesn’t
anyone
believe
me?

A question, however, may have
positive orientation. Compare:

• Did
someone
call
last night? [~Is it true that someone called last night?]

• Did
anyone
call
last night? [neutral]

• Have
you brought some
paper
and a pen? [The hearer is expected to bring them]

• Do you
mind if I put some
music
on?

• Did
you say something!

These
questions indicate that the speaker expects or encourages the answer
‘Yes’,
merely
asking for confirmation of his or her assumption.

For
politeness, it is customary to use ‘some
‘–words
in making an offer:

• Would
you like something
to
eat? [~I expect you would.]

• Do you
need some
money
for the phone?

• Can I
get you something
to
drink?

b)
Negative sentences.
When the speaker wants to deny the truth of something, he uses a
negative sentence containing one of the negative items. In such
sentences ‘any’
–words
are generally used:

• I
didn’t post any
of
the letters (Cf: I posted none
of
the letters).

But we can
also use ‘some’
words
after the negative word, and these words lie outside the scope of
negation. Therefore, the meaning of «I
didn’t
post some
of the letters» (= There were some
letters I didn’t post) is
different from that of the previous example with any.
Note
also:

• We
aren’t making any
progress.
I’m afraid.

• He
didn’t give me any
answer.

• I was
late; I didn’t find anyone
in
the house.

• He
didn’t tell me anything
about
your proposal.

Non–assertive
‘any
‘–words
are also common after certain words with negative implications:

verbs:
deny,
fail, forget, prevent, etc.:

• He
denies he said anything
to
her.

• Please
forget that you ever saw anyone
enter
this house.

adjectives:
difficult,
hard, reluctant, etc:

• It is
difficult to understand anything
she
says.

• He’s
reluctant to speak to anyone
today.

adverbs:
seldom,
hardly, never, etc.:

• She
seldom sees anyone.

• John
has never given any
indication
of being anything
but
healthy.

• They
hardly understand anything
at
all.

prepositions:
against,
without, etc:

• He
arrived without any
of
his belongings.

• She is
always against anything
I
suggest.

The non–assertive forms
even occur in positive subordinate clauses following a negative in
the main clause.

• Nobody
has promised that any
of
you will be released yet.

• That
wouldn’t deter anyone
who
had any courage. Assertive forms, however, are equally likely in
these cases.

c)
Conditional
clauses,
‘If‘–clauses
usually contain non–assertive »any
‘–forms:

• If you
have any
problems
get in touch with me.

• If you
need any
help,
just let me know.

• If you
notice anything
unusual
give me a call at once.

Clauses
beginning with unless,
on
the other hand, normally contain assertive forms:

• I
won’t phone you, unless something
unforeseen
happens. However, sentences like ‘Unless
anyone
has any questions, the meeting is adjourned’ are
also quite common.

The
combination if
only is
an intensified equivalent of if,
typically
used in unreal conditions to express a wish:

• If
only someone
had
warned me I wouldn’t have interfered.

Functionally,
sentences like If
you eat any
candy, I’ll whip you and
If
you eat some
spinach, I’ll give you ten dollars are
not pure conditions. They are rather a threat and a promise. In
these, the emotional basis of the speaker comes into play, in the
choice between some
and
any.
A
threat goes with any,
since
usually someone threatens someone else to prevent an undesired
action; a promise goes with some,
since
the speaker has in mind a desirable action or situation.

Questions
and conditions may take either positive or negative presupposition;
hence, either some
or
any
is possible.
But with a negative, there can be no positive presupposition; hence,
here alone some
is
impossible.

5.3. NEGATIVE
PRONOUNS

The
subgroup of negative pronouns contains the negative determiners no
and
neither
and
the compound pronouns no
one, nobody, nothing and
none.

No

No is
negative in meaning and used only as a noun determiner. It can
modify a singular or plural countable noun or an uncountable noun
and also –ing forms to mean ‘not
any’ or
‘not
a/an’:

• I
telephoned,
but there was no
answer
(= there was/j’/ an
answer).

• She
had no
gloves
on, and her hands were red with cold (= She hadn’t
any gloves on).

• He has
no
money
left (= He hasn’t
any money left).

No is
used as emphatic negative in sentences like:

• She
was no
beauty
(at all).

• The
old man’s no
fool.

• I’m no
philosopher.

With
‘–ing’
forms,
no
is
used to express prohibition:

• No smoking, please. •
No crossing.

• No trespassing. • No
parking.

With no,
countable
nouns are usually plural unless the sense makes a singular noun
necessary:

• He’s
got no
children,
[more usual than He’s
got no child]

• He’s
got no
wife,
[more natural than He’s
got no wives]

Sometimes,
sentences constructed with ‘verb+not’
and
‘no+noun’
have a similar meaning. The structure with no
is
generally used to emphasize the negative idea. Thus, There
was no answer and
They
have no telephone are
more emphatic than There
wasn’t an answer and
They
haven’t a telephone. Cf.
also:

Neutral	More emphatic
• I haven’t got any time to help you • There aren’t any letters for you today	• I have no time to help you. • There are no letters for you today

It should
be noted that to begin a sentence, no
and
not not
any is
generally used:

• No
teachers
went on strike.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
Indefinite expressions of amount, especially no
and
none,
often
cause concord problems. Whether the verb is singular or plural is
determined by the type of the noun modified and the sense required:

• So far
no
willingness
to help has been shown by him.

• No
person
of that name has applied.

• No
people
of that name live here.

(b) Note
the idiomatic use of no:

• She’s
no
good
as
a writer. [= inadequate; incompetent]

• No
doubt,
the weather will change. [= probably; surely]

• He
knows no
end
of funny stories. [= lots of (informal)]

• You
think I’m going to keep my mouth shut? No
way!
[=Absolutely not (informal)]

No – Nobody – Nothing

No one,
nobody and
nothing
are
used as substantives only. No
one and
nobody
refer
to persons and can be used in the genitive case; nothing
has
non–personal reference and is invariable in form:

• Nobody
came
to meet me.

• No
one
knows
about it yet.

• Everybody’s
business is nobody’s
business,
[a proverb]

• He had
nothing
to
say.

• Nothing
was
heard of him

No one,
nobody and
nothing
make
the whole clause in which they occur negative. After a negative
pronoun, ‘any‘–words
normally occur:

• No
one has
any
doubts
about his ability.

• Nobody
ever
tells
me anything.

No one
(also
written ‘no–one’
in
BrE) has the same meaning as nobody.
It
cannot be followed by an of–phrase:

• No
one
came
to see me off.

• I
asked again, but no
one
answered.

USAGE NOTES

(a)
Nothing
and
nobody
can
be used with the indefinite article and acquire a plural form to
mean ‘a trifling thing, event, remark or person’ and ‘person of no
importance, authority or position’, respectively:

• The
new commander–in–chief was a
(mere) nothing.

• She
has married a
(mere) nobody.

• They
were treated as nobodies.

Note also:
the
little nothings
of life; to whisper sweet/soft nothings.

(b) Note
the idiomatic use of
nothing:

• It
was (or
it’s)
nothing.
[=
There’s
no need to thank me or praise me]

• Nothing
doing
tonight – there’s only an old film on at the cinema, the bowling
alley is closed down, so we’re staying at home, [a) = Nothing is
happening]

• Will
you help me with the washing up? – Nothing
doing.
I must go and get my work done, [b) = No, I refuse]

• There’s
nothing
to
it. [= It really is easy]

• It was
an awful hotel: the meals were bad, the service hopeless, to say
nothing
of
the noise outside. [= to say nothing of something very obvious that
only needs to be named; in addition to…]

None

None is
used as a substantive. It is negative in meaning and has personal
and non–personal reference. None
occurs
without a noun if the meaning is clear from the context:

• How
many English books have you read? – None.

• He
asked them for advice. None
was
given.

The verb can be singular or
plural, depending on the sense required:

• He
asked for more coffee, but none
was
left.

• She
wanted some more chocolates but none
was
left,
[formal]

• She
wanted some more chocolates but none
were
left,
[informal]

None is
often followed by an of–phrase
containing a pronoun or a definite noun phrase:

• None
of
it
is worth keeping.

• None
of
this
ham is any good.

• None
of
the shopkeepers
would give me any more credit.

• None
of
them
remembered my birthday.

When the
of–phrase
contains a plural pronoun or noun, the verb can be singular (more
formal) or plural (more informal):

• None
of
them
is/are
present.

Careful
speakers and writers prefer ‘none
of
them is’.

USAGE NOTES

a) No one
(nobody) is
used to answer a ‘who‘–question:

• Who’re
you waiting for? – No
one (nobody).

b) Nothing
is used
to answer a «what‘–question:

• What’re
you thinking about? – Nothing.

c) None
is
used to answer a ‘how
many‘/’how
much‘–question:

• How
many
poems have you learned? –
None.

• How
much
petrol is left? – None.

(d) Note
the idiomatic use of
none

• Her
suggestion was second
to none,
and
the manager accepted it eagerly. [= better than anything else]

• I lent
my bike to Bob; when I got it back, it was none
the
worse for wear.
[= no worse because of use or effort]

• We’ll
have none
of
your gossip.
[= to tolerate or endure no amount of…]

• Half a
loaf is better than none.
[a
proverb]

Ex.
21 Insert some
or
any:.

1.
We
certainly don’t want … trouble. 2. There is … soup
in the pan. You may eat it. 3. But there aren’t… trains, until
morning. 4. Go up, dear, and tell her we’re all in here, with
… tea, and ask her to come down. 5. Why do you always ask
if there’s … news? 6. His mother bought … notebooks for
him. 7. She looked everywhere for matches but could not find
… . 8. «Have you … money?» — «Yes.» —
«Loan me … .» 9.
«He wants … more gruel, Jane.» — «Give him … .»
10. Ann is
much younger than … other girls in her class.

Ex.
22 Add some
or
any
as
required:

1.
I suppose we need … time in discuss that matter again. 2. I
must buy … butter
as
I
haven’t
… in my fridge. 3. Please
give rne … help. 4. Ask
him for … chalk as I haven’t … . 5. May
1 have … more salt on my potatoes? 6. Have
you … books on English grammar? 7. I’m
afraid 1 don’t have … flowers in my garden. 7. Please
give me … more soup. I’m afraid there isn’t
…
. 8. John
has hardly … food. 9. Would
you like … coffee
with
milk? 11. Please give me … coffee without milk. 12. I
don’t need … help from my family.
13. Have
you bought … oranges? (I expect you have) 14. Have
you bought … oranges? (! expect you have not) 15. If
you have … friends, you can bring them.

Ex.
23 Add some,
any, or
their compounds as required:

1.
Have you seed … ? 2. Have you … time? (I expect you have) 3. Did
you manage ю
go
… last Monday? 4. Would
you like … tea? 5. I
don’t think you would like … tea. 6. Have you bought … bread? 7.
I’d
love to eat … .
8. I
think that … must tell him the truth. 9. I hope we’ll do it …
or other. 10.
I don’t need … books on English grammar as I won’t read
them.11.Are
you waiting for … ? You look as if you were. 12. Is
… willing to give me a hand? 13. Surely, … people might have
objections against this idea of yours. 14. I’d
like
to eat … lemons. 15. Have
you got … lemons?

Ex.
24 Add some,
any, or
their compounds as required:

1.
There isn’t … we can do to prevent his activities. 2
Is there … we can meet without … witnesses? 3. I
need … help to repair the leaking roof of my house. 4. I’m sorry,
but I have scarcely … tea left. 5. Does
it make … difference to you? 6. Is
there … who can make the tape-recorder work? 7.
Before we go … further, we should repeal Aristotle’s ideas on the
matter. 8. … people tend lo gel angry when they arc criticized. 9.
May 1 have … tea, please? 10. If you need … advice, don’t ask
your friends. 11. We
seldom have … opportunity to see each other. 12. Unless
you have … to add, we shall stop our discussion at this moment.
13. You
have … old books in your library. 14. … must
say that. 15. I
left the room lo prevent … further criticism of my altitude to the
rich.

Ex.
25 Add some,
any, or
their compounds as required:

1.
Hardly … can repair my old radio. 2. I’m certain that only …
people would agree with you. 3. …
or other, we’ll manage to meet next week. 4. I’d
like to buy … chairs. It doesn’t matter to me from which period
they come. 5. I
hope to finish my project without … delay. 6. …
can answer my question. 7. Are there … newspapers left for me? (I
expect there are). 8. Are there … newspapers left for me? (I
expect not). 9. I’ve
lost my purse
…
. 10. Have
you … apples? Yes, … . 11. Which
paper would you like to read? Oh, … . 12. If
… knocks at the door, don’t move. 13. While
we were complaining about our studies, … man entered the room. 14.
He hopes to buy a car … day. 15. My
six year old son can lift 25
pounds.
Certainly, he must be … boy.

Ex.
26 Insert some,
any or
their compounds:

1. 1.
   When I needed help, he didn’t ask … questions. 2.
   Does … actually have the luxury of doing exactly what he wants
   to do? 3.1 know … about them. 4. What exactly he was going
   to do neither he nor … else quite knew. 5. Is there … you
   want there, Robin? 6.1 recalled, too, there had been … talk
   between
   Tom Wells and me. 7. Did you see … that would be of
   … use to me? 8. Even in that sad weather there was … rest­ful
   about the green fields that stretched to the horizon. 9. Have

   you
   … cheese? 10. I did not want to speak to … I knew at Barford.
   11. There’ll be … coffee in a minute. 12. Don’t you remember
   … about this afternoon?

2. 1.
   If … man wants to raise a beard, let him. 2. There was
   a strange gleam in his eyes as if … amused him greatly. 3.1
   must get … clothes, … really nice ones. 4. Will you have …
   tea
   or coffee? 5. If there’s … you want, let me know. 6.1 didn’t
   realize
   there was … here. 7. Do you want to eat …? 8. If you had
   … sense of decency, if you had … gratitude, you wouldn’t dream
   of going. 9. «I want… place that is better than mine,»
   said
   Hope. 10. If you mock me I will hit you, and if you tell… I
   will never forgive you. 11. He looked at her curiously as if to
   find in her face … that he had previously overlooked. 12.
   You may have … tea without milk because there isn’t … at home.
   13. Had I … more to say before he sent the letter? 14.
   There wasn’t … point in beating around the bush, David decided.
   15. It’s a subject you ought to know … about. 16.1
   shall be very much surprised if … is wrong. 17. Keep in
   touch if there’s … news. 18. Now, can you tell me … about your
   children? 19. He knows a great deal more than … of us

   about
   these machines. 20. If … asked my reason for exist­ence,
   what should I tell them?

Ex.
27 Insert no,
none or
their compounds:

1.
… answered her, as she addressed … in particular. 2.
There are … pears on the tree. 3. Everybody liked him … was
afraid of him. 4. It was cold outside the house and he looked
up and down for a taxi but there was … in sight. 5.1
had turned to him for support, and we had … to say to each
other. 6. … believed him. 7. The morning ticked on, midday,
the early afternoon, … of us had spoken of eating. 8. …
tells me anything. 9. Jack and Simon pretended to notice
… . 10. You told … anything about their trip to the Far East.
11. I have … time to go to the cinema with you. 12.
… of those attitudes were stated at this meeting. 13. That
afternoon,
at least, Martin was answerable to … .14. There is
… bread and … forks on the table. 15. Nicola said … .

Ex.
28 Add none,
no, or
its compounds as required:

1.
I have … friends to invite. 2. As
Tom has … relatives in Australia, it is difficult for him to go
there. 3. … of us received a
reward,
although we expected to get one. 4. … can understand my
loneliness. 5.
Have we got any cakes? I’m afraid we have … . 6. …
was eager to ski last night. 7. I
suppose … can be done to improve the present state of affairs. 8.
Fortunately, they want … to drink. 9. Strangely
enough, he has … remorse. 10. …
of my friends has a car. 11. …
is eager to help Mrs. Clark. 12. John
did … to make our party attractive. 13. Have
you got any wine? No, I have … . 14. …
got drunk at
our
party. 15. …
student can participate in our project.

Ex.
29 Add no,
none,
or
any
as
required:

1.
Have you seen … relatives of yours? No, I have seen … . 2. I
have hardly … meat left. 3. There
is … more milk left in my fridge. 4. As
George is short, he likes … tall girls. 5. …
of us has
decided
to co-operate with him. 6. Have
you … clothes for the poor? No, I have .:. . 7. Will
there be … acquaintances of yours? 8. I
have … patience to explain that to you once again. 9. Do
you grow … vegetables in your garden? 10. …
of us managed to catch the last bus to Cambridge. 11. George has …
reason to ask all these unpleasant questions. 12. …
of us could follow his long speech on A-bomb. 13.
I always drink tea and coffee with … sugar and … milk. 14. When
I rang, … of the family was at home. 15. Have you got … good
neighbours?

Ex.
30 Translate into English. Pay attention to the use of the pro­nouns
some,
any, no, none and
their compounds:

1.
Она решила никого не приглашать к себе
до приезда мужа.
2. На столе есть масло? — Да, есть. 3. Не
о чем сожа­леть,
Том. 4. Если вам нечего делать, идите
гулять. 5. Вы хотите
масла? — С удовольствием, спасибо. 6.
Если у них и было
что сказать, они не говорили. 7. Дайте
мне, пожалуй­ста,
молока. 8. У вас есть друзья в Екатеринбурге?
— Есть. 9. Вы
хотите холодного кофе? — Нет, не хочу.
10. Мы нико­го
не знали на этом вечере. 11. Бабушка
пыталась расска­зать нам что-то
приятное. 12. Никто не разговаривал. Все
внимательно
слушали лектора. 13. Можно мне взять
бума­ги?
— Возьмите, пожалуйста. 14.’Она ничего
не видела, так как
в комнате было темно. 15. Я зайду к вам,
если мне что-нибудь
понадобится. 16. Никто из детей еще не
встал. 17. Се­годня
в вашем диктанте нет ошибок. 18. Неужели
нам не предложили
прочесть некоторые интересные статьи
в этом

журнале?
19. Я буду у себя в кабинете, если вам
что-то по­надобится.
20. Папа, ты освободился? Я хочу тебе
что-то сказать.
21. Вам удалось найти какие-нибудь статьи
по это­му
вопросу? 22. Мы что-нибудь можем для вас
сделать?

23.
Ни один корреспондент не писал об этом.
24. Можно я угощу
вас бананами? — Спасибо, я не хочу. 25.
Вы думаете, нам
нужно сказать ей что-нибудь об экспедиции?

One

The
pronoun one
stands
apart in the group of indefinite pronouns. It is used as a
determiner, and is then invariable in form, and as a substantive, in
which case it has the genitive form one’s,
the
plural form ones
and
the reflexive form oneself.

One has
various uses in English.

The
indefinite personal pronoun one
has
indefinite generic reference; it functions as a substantive and
means ‘people in general’, implying inclusion of the speaker and
hearer:

• One
is
never too old to learn.

• One
can’t
ran with the hare and hunt with the hounds, [a proverb]

• One
can
always be kind to people about whom one
cares
nothing.

In this
use one
has
a reflexive and a genitive form:

• One
doesn’t need to justify oneself
to
one’s
friends.

Grammars
generally recommend to avoid the repetition of one
in
sentences like:

• One
was
clearly expected to be charmed with him, he was so bright, busy and
obviously on his way up, that one
had
one’s
hands
full simply trying to be civil to him.

Such structures are
considered clumsy.

In AmE,
the use of the co–referential one,
one’s and
oneself
is
characteristically formal, and he
(his, himself) is
commonly preferred. In informal AmE one
is
often replaced by you
(your, yourself):

• One
should
never make one’s
debut
with a scandal. [BrE and formal AmE]

• One
should
never make his
debut
with a scandal. [formal AmE]

• One
should
never make your
debut
with a scandal, [informal AmE]

The use of
one with
indefinite generic reference is chiefly formal, and the more
informal you
often
occurs in sentences like:

• By his
reaction, one
[formal]
I
you [more
informal] would think I’ve said something indecent!

• One
never
knows what may happen, [formal]

• You
never
know what may happen, [informal]

As a
substantive, one
may
be followed by an of–phrase.
One
of (the) means
‘single person or thing of the kind implied’:

• One
of
them
lost his hat.

• He is
one
of
the richest men
in the world.

One so
used can follow certain other quantifiers, notably every,
each and
any:

• Every
one
of
the windows
was broken.

With each
and
any,
one is
optional:

• Each/any
(one)
of
us could have made that mistake.

The
so–called «numerical»
determiner one,
when
used with singular count nouns, is a stressed variant of the
indefinite article:

a) It is
in contrast with the dual two
and
both
and
the plural numerals three,
four, etc.,
i.e. one is opposed to more than one:

• I only
want one
stamp.
You’ve given me two.

However, this is a borderline
case between a pronoun and a numeral.

b) (The)
one is
also in contrast with the
other in
the correlative construction or when one person or thing is compared
with another:

• One
went
this way, the
other
went that way.

• She
smiled to me as one
intellectual
to another.

c) One,
in
combination with nouns denoting time, is used to express some vague
indefinite moment/period:

• One
day
you are going to be sorry about this.

• One
afternoon,
a month later, he was sitting in his arm–chair, in the little
library.

• One
Sunday
morning,
as they were sitting at breakfast, Peter rushed into the kitchen.

The one
is
used with the meaning of only
or
single:

• He’s
the
one
man
you can rely on in the present circumstances.

• This
is the
one
thing
we can feel certain about.

The
replacive one/one’s
(or
the prop–word one)
is
used as an anaphoric substitute for a previously mentioned noun,
singular or plural, or a whole noun phrase.

• I
received a
letter
today, and my sister received one,
too.

• Which
glasses
are yours? – The gold–rimmed ones.

• Shall
I bring you a
glass of beer?
– Thank you, I’d love one.

In these
cases one
can
take determiners and modifiers (though not usually possessives or
plural demonstratives).

• I’m
looking for a particular book on criminal law. – Is this the
one
you
need?

• This armchair is more
comfortable than

• If
you’ve read this newspaper, take another
one.

• My
house is the
first one
on
the right.

One is
modified by the ‘s–genitive in preference to the post–positive
of–phrase,
in sharp contrast to the demonstratives, which can take only the
of–phrase:

• I prefer John’s car to
his employer’s (one).

• I prefer John’s car to
that of his employer.

Those
is
preferred to the
ones, especially
in a more formal style, as in:

• The
rivers
and canals of St. Petersburg are considered to be much cleaner than
those of other Russian towns.

Those,
not
the
ones, occurs
in:

• She
was a good teacher; she knew how to teach bright children and those
who
were slow.

It should
be noted that one
cannot
replace non–count (mass) nouns; instead, they are omitted:

• Which sugar would you
like – the white or the brown?

Both count
and non–count nouns can be omitted in certain structures, but
count nouns cannot be omitted after the indefinite article. Compare
the structures where omission is possible and those where one
is
obligatory:

count singular:

• I’d
prefer the long novel to the
short
(one).

• I’d
prefer a long novel to a
short one.

count plural:

• I’d
prefer the long novels to the
short
(ones).

• I’d
prefer long novels to short
(ones).

non–count (mass):

• I’d
prefer (the) red wine to (the)
white.

Note that
if the prop–word one
is
preceded by an adjective, an article must be used with it.

The
choice
between one
and
omission is quite often to be found in English. After an adjective,
the noun need not be repeated or necessarily replaced by one
in
sentences like:

• If you
take the beige blouse, I’ll have the
green.

• What’s
the difference between a direct question and indirect?

The noun is always omitted
with a small set of adjectives and participles:

blind
deaf homeless poor

unemployed
brave disabled injured

rich
wealthy dead elderly

living
sick young

When they are substantivised,
they acquire the meaning ‘the class of people who are blind, brave,
dead, etc.’ The definite article is obligatory:

• We’re
collecting money for the
sick (blind, injured, etc.).

USAGE NOTES

a) one
is
not used after own:

• Thank
you for offering your pen, but I’d rather use my own.

b) one
is
normally not used after a superlative adjective or a comparative
adjective determined by the definite article:

• Of all the sisters Jane
was the prettiest.

• Of the two armchairs I
chose the harder

c) one
is
not used after cardinal numerals:

• I have only one brother
and you have two.

(d) The
substantive one
in
generic reference is often considered typical of upper–class or
mannered usage and is avoided by many people for this reason

(e) A
one
occurs,
exceptionally, in colloquial English, as in:

• Oh,
you are a
one!
[=
an
amusing, or daring, person]

(f) Note
the idiomatic use of
one:

• «The
bus never turned up, sir!» – «That’s
a good one,
Smith.
I was on it myself, so where were you?» [a) = That’s
unbelievable (slang; sometimes written «a good
‘un «)]

• «A
good ‘un.
Freddie!» they cried, as they bent double with laughter, [b) =
That’s a good joke!]

• I, for
one,
don’t
think it’s a good idea. [= as far as … is concerned]

• It’s
all one
to
me
where we go – round the shops, to the museums again; I’m getting
rather bored with all this sightseeing anyway. [= I don’t mind (used
to express agreement with any of the choices offered, and often also
a lack of interest in any of them)]

• One
for
Aunt Julie – there, that’s right! Good! [= Take one spoonful for
(a particular person); used to encourage children to eat their food]

• «What
about having one
for
the road?» – «No, thanks, I’m driving.» [= one more
drink before going home or going on a journey]

• And
now, ladies and gentlemen, the star of tonight’s show, the
one
and
only
Rob Robertson! [used in announcing or presenting an actor, singer,
etc.]

Ex.
31 Define the meaning and function of the pronoun one:

1.
One must be sure of one’s ground. 2. «Which is Avice, the
young one or the old one?» — «The young one.» 3.
One morning
he received a long letter from Thorpe Athelney. 4.
Then I suppose he addresses his letters to the people who are to
read them. And this one is addressed to Isabel. 5. «It shows
that
one should be careful what one says,» said Faith lightly. Two
more buses came up and pulled in behind the first one. He
has interviewed my friends — the ones I have now and the
ones who have been with me in former years. 8. When one

knows
what others suffer one’s ashamed. 9. That was why, one autumn
afternoon, he sent word that he would like a «little talk»
with
Hector Rose and me. 10. «Did Father have an ordinary

illness
like an English one?» said Gavin. 11. I know we’re not
religious
people, we’re actors, and after eight performances a week
one wants one’s Sundays to oneself. 12. «Have you little
ones finished your dessert?» said Eleanor.

5.4. DISTRIBUTIVE
PRONOUNS

All,
both, every, and
each
are
amount words, or quantifiers, of inclusive meaning. Every
is
used as a determiner only; the others function both as determiners
and substantives.

All and
both

As a
determiner, all
occurs with plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns, and both
with
plural count nouns only:

• Please
type all
(the)
letters.

• All
life
is sacred.

• Both
(the)
secretaries
are quite efficient.

All,
which
can be both singular or plural in meaning, and both,
which
is not proper plural but «dual», i.e. refers only to two
items, are also termed predeterminers as they combine with other
determiners (articles, possessives and demonstratives) occurring
before them:

• I’ve
answered all
these
letters.

• He’s
spent all
his
money on this car.

• Both
the
other men
felt icy at the calm viciousness in his voice.

The
following structures are possible with all
and
both
modifying
a

• All/both
documents
have been signed.

• All
the/both
the
documents have been signed.

• All
of
the/both
of
the
documents have been signed.

It should
be noted that there is a difference in reference with all.
Compare:

• All
children
like ice–cream, [generic, or universal reference]

• All
the
children
are in bed. [specific reference in a given situation]

All and
both
can
be followed by an of–phrase
containing a personal pronoun or a definite noun phrase;
of–constructions
are optional with nouns and obligatory with pronouns:

• She
shook her head and smiled at both
of them/both (of)
the girls.

• I’d
like to invite all
of
you/all
(of)
my friends
to my birthday party.

• Have
you eaten all
of
it/all
(of)
the cake?

Though all
is
commonly used as a predeterminer, it also occurs directly before a
plural count noun or a non–count noun:

• All
things
are difficult before they are easy, [a proverb]

• All
work
and no play makes Jack a dull boy. [a proverb]

With
temporal nouns, e.g. day,
night, week, month, summer, winter, etc.,
the definite article is normally absent:

• I’ve
been waiting for you all
day.

The
combination ‘all
the’ can
be used with a singular count noun, but ‘the
whole of or
‘all
of the’ is
preferable:

• All
(of)
the country
was shocked by the violence of the terrorist.

• The
whole country
was shocked by the violence of the terrorist.

Note that
while both all
(of) and
whole
can
be used with singular nouns to mean ‘complete’, ‘every part of, the
word order is different:

determiner + whole + noun (e.g. my whole life)

all (of) + determiner + noun (e.g. all of my life)

All and
both
can
be put after pronouns used as objects:

• Nelly
will invite you
all
I you
both.

• I’ve
shown them
all
I them
both
your
letter.

When all
and
both
are
used after a subject pronoun they may go in mid–position and
follow an auxiliary or a modal verb, thus being separated from the
pronoun:

• They
all/both
rejected
my offer.

• We
can all/both
ride
a horse.

Note also
the mid–position of all
and
both
with
nouns used as the subject of a sentence:

• My
sons
can all/both
play
golf.

• The
teachers
were all/both
alarmed
at John’s behaviour.

All and
both
used
as substantives function mainly as the subject or object of a
sentence:

• All’s
well
that ends well.

• We
give him all
he
needs.

• You
should have seen my parents’ faces! Both
were
mad at me.

• Have
you seen Jack and Jill? – I talked to both
this
afternoon.

Besides,
all
can
be used predicatively:

• That’s
all.

The
pronoun all
is
singular in meaning when it means ‘everything’, ‘the whole of a
thing’. This is generally restricted to the structure ‘all
+ relative
clause’:

• All
(that)
I know is that he’s gone.

• All
(that)
he has is yours.

This structure is said to
have rather a negative meaning, expressing ideas like ‘nothing
more’, or ‘the only thing(s)’:

• All
he wants
is to be left alone.

• This
is all
I’ve
got.

All in
the
meaning
of ‘everybody’ or ‘everything’ as in ‘All
is lost’ and
‘All
are dead is
sometimes found in dramatic contexts like newspaper headlines:

• Spy
tells all.

• Winner
gets all.

When all
means
‘everybody’, which is rare, it is plural in meaning and combines
with a plural verb:

• All
are
welcome.

USAGE NOTES

(a) Note
the use of all
to
emphasize some adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions:

• You’re
all
wrong.

• The
money is all
gone.

• She
was all
alone.

• It’s
all
the
same
to me.

• It’s
all
because
of him.

• It’s
all
for
the best.

(b) Note
the idiomatic use of all:

• It’s
only a game, after
all!
[a)
= in spite of everything; b) = anyway]

• I’ve
suspected that all
along.
[= all the time]

• The
surface is oily all
over.
[= completely]

• There
were books, papers, magazines and
all
covering
the whole of the floor. [= including the people or things just
mentioned and a large number of the rest]

• For
all
I
know (care),
the mayor wasn’t re–elected [= as far as I know (care)]

• Of
all
the
stupid things to do! [used to express annoyance or surprise]

• That’s
all
right.
[= There’s no need to thank or apologize]

Every
and
Each

Every
and
each
are
mainly used as determiners in combination with singular count nouns;
each
also
occurs as a substantive:

• Every
cloud
has a silver lining, [a proverb]

• You
should make every
effort
to obtain this information.

• Before
leaving the classroom, the teacher gave each
girl
a task of her own.

• They
did not talk much about what each
feared
most.

• To
each
his
own. [a proverb]

Exceptionally,
every
may
occur with a non–count noun, meaning ‘all’, ‘whatever’.

• I’m
prepared to give you every
assistance
you may need.

• I wish
you every
success.

Every
can
be used with plural expressions like ‘every
few days’, ‘every few months’, etc.,
and in combination with other:

• Jane
comes to see us every
few
days.

• We
made a stop every
two
miles
to have some rest.

• He
promised to write every
other
day.

• Write
only on every
other
line,
please.

Every
and
each
are
called distributive words because they pick out the members of a set
or group singly, rather than look at them together. In many cases
both every
and
each
can
be used without much difference in meaning:

• He
looked more and more gloomy each/every
time
I met him.

• Fruit
is getting scarcer in my garden each/every
year.

• Each/every
man
knows his job.

However,
each
usually
refers to two or more persons or things whereas every
is
normal to talk about three or more. In this respect each
is
close to both
and
they can replace one another in many contexts:

• She
kissed me on both
cheeks/on
each
cheek.

There is
another point of difference between each
and
every.
Though
they are both distributive words, each
refers
individually when we think of people or things separately, one at a
time, without adding them up. Every
is
more common when we think about people or things together, in a
group, thus gathering separate items into a whole:

• Each
girl
in turn came up to the headmistress and made a little bow.

• The
old doctor used to give every
patient
the same prescription.

Due to the
difference in meaning, every
and not each
is used with words and expressions like almost,
practically, nearly, etc.
which stress the idea of a whole group:

• We
could hear nearly every
word
in the last row of the gallery.

Every
is
closer to all,
though
the distinction between them is that in a sentence like ‘All
the students
took part in the conference’, «the
students» are considered in a mass; in the sentence «Every
student
took part in the conference’ reference
is made to the many individual students that make up the mass.
Besides, every
often
suggests ‘without exception’.

Note the
difference between (1) She
gave a basket of strawberries to M of the girls and
(2) She
gave a basket of strawberries to each / every
one of the girls. Sentence
(1) may mean that the girls shared one basket of strawberries;
sentence (2) must mean that there were as many baskets of
strawberries as girls and each/every one of the girls got one of her
own.

As a
result of its specific meaning, each
may
be followed by an of–phrase
containing a pronoun or a definite noun phrase; the pronoun or noun
is plural:

• He
looked at each
of
us
in turn

• The
teacher gave a book to each
of
the boys.

• I
write to each
of
my daughters
once a week.

An
of–phrase
is not possible with every.

The verb
with ‘each
of…’ tends
to be singular, but it can be plural in an informal style:

• Each
of
us
have little secrets [informal]

Like all
and
both,
each can
follow the subject of the sentence and go with a verb in
mid–position, as in:

• They
each
have
two sons.

• We
each
think
the same.

• My
sisters
have each
given
me a crystal vase as a birthday present.

Each
can also follow an object as a part of a longer structure:

• I want
you
each
to
get a good education.

• She
bought them
each
a
beer.

• I gave
the
boys each
a
sandwich and a Coca–Cola.

• He
sent them
each
a
long letter.

Though a
noun can be dropped and each
can
occur alone if the noun has already been mentioned, ‘each
one’ and
‘each
of them’ is
more common in an informal style. The following verb is usually
singular:

• Four
men entered the office and each
(one
of them)
was asked to sign his name.

The
pronoun referring back to ‘each+noun/pronoun’
can be singular or plural, which is more informal:

• Each
guest
chose what he/she/they
liked best to drink.

• Each
of them
explained the situation in his/her/their
own way.

USAGE NOTE

Note the
idiomatic use of
every:

• We eat
mutton every
now
and then/every
now
and again/every
once
in a while.
[= occasionally]

• Every
minute/moment
counts. [= Time is very important; It’s very urgent]

• I
expect every
living
soul
to be there on time. [= every person; informal]

Everyone – Everybody
— Everything

In
combination with –one,
–body and
–thing,
the
pronoun every
forms
the following compounds: everyone,
everybody and
everything.
They
are all used as substantives only and take a singular verb. Everyone
and
everybody
refer
to persons, while everything
refers
to things:

• Everybody
knows
he’s a miser.

• Everyone
wants
to meet him.

• Everything
is
good in its season, [a proverb]

Everyone
and
everybody
can
be used in the genitive case, whereas everything
is
invariable:

• Everybody’s
business
is nobody’s business, [a proverb]

• She’s
sure of everyone’s
consent.

• Everyone’s
eyes
swept to the window.

Other

Other
is
used as a determiner and a substantive. As a determiner, it is
invariable and occurs with plural count nouns to mean ‘additional’,
‘remaining’:

• How
many other
brothers
have you?

• I had
few friends those days, for I was occupied with other
things.

• Other
horses
were exercising on the sand tract, more joining the circuit or
leaving it.

• I have
no other
friends
but you.

Other
can
also mean ‘an alternative’, ‘besides this/these’:

• Have
you got any other
boots,
or are these the only ones?

• Put on
some other
clothes,
will you?

The
combination of other
with
the definite article modifying a singular count noun means ‘the
second of the two’:

• He
suddenly saw his mother on the
other side
of the street.

• We
walked to the
other end
of the garden in silence.

• Before
pulling on the
other glove
she paused and gave me a quick smile.

The
other modifying
a plural noun means ‘the rest’, ‘the remaining’:

• The
other tourists
remained in the camp.

• Jack
was standing by the window with a glass in his hand; the
other guests
had gone.

As a
substantive, other
has
the plural form others
and
the genitive form other’s
(others’); the
meaning of the substantive other
is
much the same as that of the determiner. Normally, other
(s) is
only used alone if it refers back to a noun that has been mentioned
before:

• The
bar was kept by two very nice girls, one of them American, the
other
English.

• These
shoes are too small. Have you got any others?

• One of
my sisters’ husband is an accountant, the
other’s
is
a bank officer.

An
exception is the common plural use of (the)
others to
mean ‘(the) other people’:

• She
never thinks of
others.

• I must
consult the
others.

USAGE NOTES

(a) Note
that other
is
not used as an adjective to mean ‘different’:

• I’d rather have a
completely different colour.

• You look quite different
without your eyeglasses.

(b) Note
the use of the
other to
express contrast in the correlative construction:

• One
went this way, the
other
that
way.

(c) Note
the idiomatic use of
other in:

• I saw
him the
other
day.
[= a few days ago]

• He
must have eaten something
or other
which
upset his stomach.

• He’ll
find some
idiot or
other
to
do it for him as usual.

• I
don’t want you to be other
than
you are.

Another

Another
is
one word; it is invariable in form and can be thought of as a
combination of two determiners: the indefinite article and other.
As
a determiner, it occurs with singular count nouns to mean ‘an
additional, extra’:

• Will
you have another
cup
of tea?

• I’d
like to have another
talk
with your sister.

• He’s
written another
book
on ants.

It can also mean ‘(an)
alternative’, ‘besides this’:

• Take
this cup away and bring me another
one.

• Show
me another
hat.
I don’t like this one.

Another
can,
however, occur before a plural noun with few
or
any cardinal number, as well as dozen
and
score,
to
mean ‘(that number) more’:

• We’ll
have to wait another
few
weeks.

• I need
another
five
pounds.

• What
fine eggs! Let’s take another
dozen!

Another
is
mainly used alone to refer to a previously mentioned noun or express
contrast:

• This
skirt is too tight, try another.

• One
would blame him, another
would
excuse him.

USAGE NOTE

Note the
idiomatic use of
another:

• Ask me
another!
[=
I
don’t know]

• Tell
me another!
[=
I simply can’t believe you (rather old–fashioned)]

• You’re
another!
[an
expression used as a reply to show that the accusation just made of
someone else applies to the first speaker also: I
think
Jim’s rather a fool! – Yes, and you ‘re another!]

Either
and
neither

Either
and
its negative counterpart neither
are
used both as determiners and substantives. As determiners, either
and
neither
occur
with singular count nouns only:

• Either
solution
is a bad one

• They
were sitting on either
side
of the fire.

• I can
agree in neither
case

• Neither
statement
is true.

Either
mainly
means ‘one or the other of two’:

• You
can go by either
road.

• Shall
I come on Saturday or Sunday? – Either
day
will do.

It may
also mean ‘each of two’, especially in the expressions ‘on
either side ‘ and
‘at
either end’:

• The
river overflowed on
either
side.

• There
was a drug–store at
either
end
of the street.

The
meaning ‘one or the other of the two’ is also found when either
occurs
as a substantive, without a noun:

• Shall
I come on Saturday or Sunday? – Either
will
do.

• Would
you have white or red wine? – I don’t mind. Either.

Neither
is
used to mean ‘not one and not the other (of two)’:

• He
took neither
side
in the discussion.

• Shall
we go on Tuesday or Wednesday? – I’m afraid, neither
(day)
will do.

• Ulysses
and To
the Lighthouse
are great books but neither
is
easy to read.

Either
and
neither
may
be followed by an of–phrase
containing a pronoun or a noun phrase:

• I
don’t like either
of
her sisters/either
of them.

• Take
either
of
the two routes.

• You
can have either
of
these cakes/either
of
them.

• I like
neither
of
her sisters/neither
of
them.

USAGE NOTES

(a) The
verb after of–phrases
with either
and
neither
is
usually singular, but it can be plural in an informal style:

• Either of my brothers is
married.

• Either
of my brothers are
married,
[informal]

• Neither of them is at
home now.

• Neither of them are at
home now. [informal]

(b) The
pronoun pointing back to either
of/neither of is normally
in the singular though it can also be plural, which is informal:

• If you
see either
of the girls,
tell her
to
get in touch with me.

• If you
see either
of
the girls, tell them
to
get in touch with me. [informal]

Ex.
32 Insert both
in
its proper place:

1.
We are wounded a little. 2. We can’t stay here togeth­er.
3. «Will you be silent?» said Eleanor. 4. They are in
their last
year at Cambridge. 5. They remained there laughing and
talking until two-thirty. 6. You see, they’re old. 7. They paused.
8. They have been waiting for an hour. 9. We were determined to play
tennis. 10. They want you to come there presently
and stay. 11. They passed him through the curtain opening.

Ex.
33 Insert all
in
its proper place:

1.
«Were they together?» said Eleanor. 2. They seemed clever.
3. We thought we were progressing — now we know we’re
only changing. 4. I don’t care what people say, they can’t
be bad. 5. The meetings have been in public places, with­out
concealment. 6. They were very happy. 7. His father and his
uncles had complained of liver. 8. It’s very boring. 9. They would
be so happy there. 10. «We have done that,» said Regan,
rapidly
blinking her eyes.

Ex.
34 In some of the following sentences each
and
every
aге
possible;
in others we can use only one of them.
Cross out
any
words we cannot use:

1.
You will each/
every receive
a name badge on arrival. 2. Not every
/ each participant
will necessarily be interested
in each
/ every seminar.
3. Nearly every/
each time
I see her, she’s wearing that
blue and yellow floral dress. 4. You
can record each
/ every event
that takes place in this
little book. 5. Each
/ Every of
these containers contains something,
but not every/
each one
has something valuable in it. 6. You
have every/
each right
to be dissatisfied with every/
each member
of your team. 7. If
you don’t listen carefully to his every/
each word,
he’ll
twist you around his little finger. 8. As
every/
each day
passes, the situation seems to grow
worse.

Ex.
35 Insert each
or
every:

1.
He had been sitting out there, looking suddenly quite horrible
with a hand on … knee. 2. She and Ethel exchanged voluminous
letters. Ethel described … detail of … current affair.
3. The bedrooms were all the same, … with a window and
a door giving onto the court-yard. 4. He was a kind host,
however, for though he circulated freely throughout the
room talking to his guests, … few minutes he would appear
at his wife’s side to see that she was happy and comfortable.
5. During the next week, Tom did four more drafts
of the speech, … of which Hopkins praised highly before
asking for a rewrite. 6. He didn’t answer. He had no
doubt that she meant … word she said. 7. There was … kind
of news in the paper: accidents, shipwrecks, sports, and politics.
8. He cleared his throat three times to speak and failed … time.
9. We sat around silently for a moment, … trying
to think of some possibility that we had overlooked. 10.
… few hours a fishing village came into sight. 11. The two
little girls held his hands, one on … side. 12. … pillar had
its shadow and … shadow its crouching patient.

Ex.
36 Would you choose each
or
every
if you
were writing a song? Here are some lyrics to complete.

1.
… of us was mischievous. 2. I
say ‘Please stay’ to you – … single day I do. 3. We were …
out
of reach. 4. … few years I remember your tears. 5. … once in a
while I remember your smile. 6. … time I ever need a dime …

Ex.
37 Translate into English. Pay attention to the use of the pronouns
each
and
every.

1.
Каждый школьник знает правила дорожного
дви­жения.
2. Это была большая комната с крашеным
потол­ком
и гобеленом на каждой стене. 3. Она
встречала его на
катке каждую субботу. 4. Известно, что
почти каждый ребенок
любит яблоки. Мы дали каждой девочке и
каж­дому
мальчику по яблоку. 5. Каждую неделю я
проводил несколько дней в деревне. 6.
Он продолжал смотреть на часы
каждые пять минут. 7. Они прислали мне
два биле­та
в Большой театр. Каждый билет стоил
пятьсот рублей. 8.
Каждый студент должен знать свои
обязанности. 9. Хотя в
комнате никто не жил, тетя Керри убирала
ее каждый день. 10. Каждый из нас должен
был выполнить свою ра­боту
вовремя. 11. Когда он был студентом, он
каждый год ездил
на Урал. 12. У каждого близнеца был мяч.
13. Он пожал
руку каждому гостю. 14. Он навещает нас
каждое воскресенье.
15. Преподаватель сказал, что каждый из
нас должен внимательно прочитать эту
статью. 16. Мы встре­чаемся
с друзьями каждое лето на юге. 17. В нашей
дерев­не
двести домов, и около каждого дома есть
сад. 18. На
конференции
каждому
дали
блокнот
и
ручку.

Ex.
38 Insert each,
every, everybody, or
everything:

1.
I met a group of several friends, … was drunk. 2. “ …
pupil
should bring waste paper», said our headmaster. 3. Will
you please bring … that is necessary for such an experiment? 4. I
have three sons, … son has four sons, which means that I have
twelve grand-sons. 5. … is asked lo leave the restaurant as soon
as possible. 6. Tom
wants lo see … friend individually. 7. Suddenly, they entered my
room. … was currying a gun. 8. …
felt offended after his long speech. 9.
If
1 ever see my sisters, 1 will give a gold bracelet to … . 10. Mary
was in such a hurry that she left … at home.

Ex.
39 Insert each,
every, everybody, or
everything:

1.
… man in the crowd was extremely frightened. 2. I’ve
lost … I had on me. 3. … side
of the street was full of cars. 4. People
were gathering on … side of the Market Square. 5. They
earn $ 1000 … . 6. They … earn $ 1000. 7. …
should be present at that meeting. 8. We
were offered … attention. 9. …
one
of
the two women was very dirty. 10. …
one of the class passed his entrance warn at the university. 11. I
have to see my doctor … three months. 12. They
were … working on that project. 13.
I’ve listened to … single record Tom has. 14. … got a prize for
the useful research. 15. They see each other … two weeks.

Ex.
40 Fill in either
or
neither:

1.
Rina was sleeping soundly, her dolls, Susie and Mary, on
… side of her. 2. At the front there were four windows, two
on … side of the door. 3. The sound they heard then made
both of them start slightly, though … observed it in the other.
4. They each had a large cup of something called coffee, which
looked like tea and didn’t taste particularly like …. 5.
He wanted to read something and told her to stop talk­ing:
she did not know whether to obey or to get angry, and was
so puzzled that she did … . 6. On … side of the stage the
candles
burned steadily in gently ascending lines. 7. Tom and
Nick both shuddered at the thought of meeting a wolf in
the forest. But… said a word. 8. He followed her into the front
room, where Helen and Matthew were sitting stiffly on … side
of the fireplace with its big overmantel mirror. 9. Young Jolyon
put his hand on his father’s shoulder, and, as … spoke, the
episode closed. 10. Both the pilots were in. But … of them heard
the stewardess enter.

Ex.
41 Insert either,
neither or
both.
Translate
the sentences into Russian.

1.
They … laughed and Dan looked down at his desk. 2. We were
… in the room, but… of us spoke for some time. 3. Then, carrying
a valise in … hand, he stepped out on the landing. 4.
Hatton entered the room, and he looked at her and hesitat­ed,
and then took the open book in … his hands and came to her
side. 5. He was led to a place at the head of one of the ta­bles.
The boys on … side of him stood up very politely until he
sat down. 6. I guess we’re … a little bit overtired. 7. He looked
from Singer to Philip, but… answered. 8. «Come with me
and I will give you one of my own photographs,» said Elean­or.
«Then you can have your parents on … side of your
fire­place.»
9. Hatton took … the plates in one hand, and Nevill’s hand
in the other, and led the way from the room. 10. She ex­pected
men to talk about football and racing. and Philip knew nothing
of …. 11. They were … running hard, but someone was
ahead of them. 12. He spent a restless and unsettled va­cation,
quite out of touch with … of his two sisters. 13. … of the
two women, perhaps, could have said why they were stopped in
mid-argument. 14. I think you can … read this poem by heart.
15. Soames added: «Well, I hope you’ll … enjoy your­selves.»

Ex. 42 Correct any
incorrect uses of quantifiers in the following sentences. The first
one is shown as an example.

1.
None of
the supermarkets in our town sells fresh fish.
2. Our
two children are very alike: every one has red hair and green eyes.
3. Which
of these two umbrellas is yours? None. 4. How much are these
second-hand books? £1 every one.
5. You
can go either way at the fork in the road: they all

lead
to the beach. 6. Is
Phyllis a nurse or a dentist? Neither. She’s a psychiatrist. 7. I’m
afraid I know a few words of Italian so I can’t really communicate.
8. All
student is responsible for cleaning his own room. 9. Each
CD in her collection was by the same group! 10. There
seems a little point in continuing our discussion
if you are not prepared to make any concessions.
11. We
asked a young couple for directions but none of them knew where the
street was. 12. I’ve
seen all Meryl Streep’s films and she’s brilliant in every
one. 13. We’re
having a cocktail party for few close friends

next
Friday if you’d like to join us. 14. Does
either of them happen to live in Cavendish Road?
15. Each
tyre on the car had been deliberately slashed by vandals.

Ex.
43 Translate the sentences into English. Pay attention to the use
of the pronouns both,
either, neither, all.

1.
Попросите их всех прийти вовремя. 2. Мы
с мамой обе остались здесь ждать старшего
брата. 3. Оба мальчика были
высокие. 4. Она видела, как он выходил
из дома с чемоданом в каждой руке. 5. Оба
ехали молча или обсуждали
такие вещи, которые не интересовали ни
того ни другого.
6. Когда она наклонила голову, ее темные
волосы упали
по обе стороны лица. 7. «Нам всем нужно
продви­гаться вперед», — сказал
экскурсовод. 8. Она посмотрела вокруг
и увидела, что по обеим сторонам дороги
были прекрасные современные высокие
дома. 9. Они оба стоя­ли
неподвижно. 10. Она спросила Джона и
Джека, где они так
долго были. 11. Ни тот ни другой ничего
не ответили. «Они
все для меня одинаковы», — сказал
Филипп. 12. Они
оба могут остаться здесь. 13. Оба мальчика
тяжело
дышали. 14. «Почему вы все спустились
вниз?» — спро­сил
мой отец. 15. Мы оба засмеялись и расстались
друзь­ями.
16. «Бабушка, мы все здесь», — сказала
Люси тихо. 17.
«Вы боитесь темноты или собаки?» — «Я
не боюсь ни того
ни другого». 18. Надеюсь, что мы все будем
выполнять
свой долг. 19. Он разглядывал меня, а я
разглядыва­ла его, и ни тот ни другой
ничего не говорили. 20. Маль­чики
с обеих сторон поддерживали пожилого
человека, когда
переходили улицу.

21.
Они вдруг все перестали тан­цевать
вальс. 22. Вы оба должны приехать к нам
и провести у нас вечер. 23. «Вечер будет
посвящен вопросам и
ответам», — сказал Ник. «Откровенно
говоря, я не вижу нужды
ни в том ни в другом», — сказала Анна.
24. Они оба
вскоре ушли в кино. 25. «Я слышала, как
вы оба при­шли», — сказала мать. 26.
Отец Джека учил его матема­тике
и латинскому языку, не зная ни того ни
другого, а тетушка
учила его французскому и музыке.

Ex.
44 Insert other
or
another
and
the definite article where nec­essary:

1.
Donald’s wife brought in two big cups, holding one in each
hand. One she gave to Daphne and … to Donald. 2. Fi­nally
Jenny said, «Wouldn’t anybody like some more coffee?» «I
think my husband could use … cup,» said Naomi. 3. Alec
whispered
something from … side of the table. 4. He spread the
magazine flat on the floor, open so that its pages were on one
side and its paper on …. 5. There was … pause. 6.1 cast a
quick look back out the window. Three parachutes opened one
after …, in rapid succession. 7. From one piece of news he went
to …, keeping the paper well before his face. 8. He took … puff
on his cigarette. 9. Jimmie was taking a short holiday which
he spent in going every night to the theatre in one town
after …. 10. He threw his fist on the table and, frowning angrily,
protruded one finger after …. 11.1 will come in … day
to hear how they acquit themselves. 12. He entered the room
and saw Mike and Marja sitting on the sofa. He looked first
at one, then at … . 13. Robinson went out, returning presently
for … bowl of soup. 14. When it happens, there must
be only two persons present beside myself. One is Mark Ruthen
… is a man whom I expect here only very shortly. 15.
Her two sons were playing in the garden. Ann turned her
eyes from one to … .

6. Interrogative/relative pronouns

The
interrogative pronouns who
(objective
case whom),
whose, what and
which
belong
to the class of ‘wh‘–words
together with the interrogative adverbs where,
when and
why,
and
are used to introduce special questions (or ‘wh’–
questions).
Most interrogatives act both as determiners in a noun phrase and as
substantives. Besides, they can be used to introduce subordinate
clauses and phrases, in which case they are referred to as relative
words, or relative pronouns (as in We
didn’t know what
to answer).

Determiners • What book are you reading? • Which month is hotter here: July or August? • Whose dog is this?

Substantives (pronouns proper) • What is this book about? • Which is the hottest month here, July or August? • Whose is this dog?

Who
(whom) functions
as a substantive only:

• Who
are
you?

• Who
is
he talking about?

Who(whom)
and
whose
have
personal reference; what
and
which
can
have personal and non–personal reference:

• Who
is
that girl?

• What
poets
do you like best?

• Whose
house
is this?

• What
newspaper
are you reading?

• Which
films
do you prefer: thrillers or comedies?

• Which
pop
singer do you like best: Michael Jackson or David Bowie?

Who

The
pronoun who,
which
asks questions about persons, does not distinguish gender (sex) or
number:

• Who
are
the children in this picture?

• Who
is
this man / woman?

Who is
the nominative case and is mainly used as the subject or predicative
of the sentence:

• Who
wrote
this novel?

• Who
wants
to help?

• Who
is
the man on this bank–note’.’

Whom is
the objective case and is used as prepositional or prepositionless
object:

• Whom
is
she going to marry?

• Whom
did
you see there?

• In
whom
can
I confide?

• By
whom
was
it done?

USAGE NOTES

(a) It
should be noted that whom
is
considered very formal, especially after prepositions. In spoken
English it is replaced by who:

• Who
is
she going to marry? [informal]

• Who
did
you see there? [informal]

(b) When
who
is
used as a prepositional object, the preposition is placed at the end
of the sentence:

• Who
are
they laughing at?

• Who
can
we rely on?

• Who
is
he thinking about?

• Who
did
he write this letter to?

(c) Note
the idiomatic use of who:

• Don’t
forget to look up her name in Who’s
Who
[=a
reference book on contemporary outstanding people]

• Did
you talk to Mary? – Mary who!
– Mary
Roberts. [used after a Christian name to inquire about the person’s
surname]

• The
letter started out, «To
Whom
it
May Concern.»
[a form of address used in letters when the writer does not know the
name or position of the person who handles the kind of business he
is writing about]

Whose

Whose
is
a possessive interrogative determiner/substantive, thus it functions
attributively or predicatively:

• Whose
hat
are you wearing?

• Whose
are
these glasses?

Prepositions
can normally come before whose
[more
formal] or at the end of the sentence:

• In
whose
name
has the house been bought?

• Whose
car
are you going in?

In short
sentences with no verb, prepositions can come only before whose’.

• I’m
planning a holiday abroad. – With
whose
money?

When used
as an interrogative pronoun, whose
has
personal reference; when used as a relative pronoun introducing
attributive clauses, it can have personal and non–personal
reference:

• The
executive whose
name
had been given to us by the receptionist was in conference.

• The
gardener rooted out the tree whose
trunk
had been split in two by a lightning.

What

What is
invariable in form; as a determiner , it has personal and
non–personal reference; as a substantive, non–personal reference
only

• What’s
so
important about him?

• What
do
you have in mind?

• What
are
your plans this afternoon?

What as
a determiner in a noun phrase refers both to people and things:

• What
colour
is her hair?

• What
English
books
have you read in the original?

• What
people
are you going to meet at the party tonight?

Besides,
the determiner what
can
start an exclamatory sentence expressing various kinds of emotions:
enthusiasm, admiration, surprise. dislike, disgust, etc.:

• What
a
marvellous book he has written!

• What
a
pretty girl she has turned out!

Exclamations of this kind are
often shortened to a noun phrase:

• What
nonsense!

• Really,
what
a
suggestion!

The
determiner what
combines
with other:

• What
other
problems
has she got’?

When the
pronoun what
in
substantive use refers to a person it is limited to questions about
people’s professions, role, status and jobs:

• What’s
your
brother? – He’s a TV producer.

• What’s
his
sister? – She’s a college graduate. In meaning this is similar to:

• What’s
his
job? – Deputy chief of station

In
contrast to that, a ‘who’–question
is used to ask about the identity of a person; the answers can be
different:

• Who’s
this?
Eh, who’s
calling?
– This is Phillip Chen.

• Who
was
he? – His papers said. Jan Dunross, seaman first class.

• Who’re
you?
– A friend

• Do you
know her, Andrew? – Who?
[informal] – That girl in white.

• Who’s
this
MacStruan? – A distant cousin.

In the
case of what
as
a prepositional object, in an informal style especially, it is more
common to place the preposition at the end of the sentence:

• What’re
you
dreaming about?

• What
is he
looking at?

• What’re
we
here for?

• What’s
all
this about?

What
can
be also used to ask questions about actions:

•What’s
he
doing? – He’s fixing his bike.

It is very
common in questions opening with ‘ What
about. ‘:

• What
about
Saturday?

• What
about
the races? I want to watch Noble Star run.

USAGE NOTES

(a) What
often
occurs as an expression of surprise or disbelief:

• Robert
gaped at her. «What!»

(b) Note
that in questions about the kind or sort to which a person or thing
belongs the expressions ‘what
kind of’ and
‘what
sort of’ are
generally used:

• What
sort
of
food would you like? – Chinese.

• I’ve
an important friend. – What
kind
of friend? – A very important business friend who needs my help.

(c) The
interrogative pronouns who
and
what
are
made emphatic by adding ever
to
show surprise or difficulty in believing something:

• Who
ever
could have told you that?

• What
ever
are you doing here?

These
combinations can also be written as single words: whatever,
whoever. Such
structures belong to an informal style, especially with ‘on
earth’, ‘the hell’
instead of ever:

• Whatever
/ What
on
earth
are you speaking about?

• Whoever
/Who the
hell
has made this terrible mess?

When used as relative
pronouns serving as subordinators in complex sentences,
‘–ever’–compounds are always written as single words:

• Whatever
happens,
don’t worry.

• I
think you’re right, whoever
may
criticize you.

(d) Note
the idiomatic use of what:

• What‘s
he
like?
(Russ.
Каков он?;
Что он за человек?; Как он выглядит?)

• What
of
that/it? (Russ.
Ну и что
из этого?)

• …and
I don’t know
what/who.
[=
…and
many other people/things also]

• We’ll
be there on time, no
matter what.
[=
in any event]

• So
what?
[=
What importance or relevance does that have? (used to show a lack of
interest and often said in an impolite, unfriendly way)]

• What
is
it to you? [= Why are you interested in it?]

• What’s
up?
[= What is happening?]

• What’s
yours?
[= What would you like to drink?]

• Everyone
had a hammer, a saw or
whatever.
[=
or
another thing of the same kind]

Which

Which
is
in many respects similar to what.
It is invariable in form; it functions as a noun determiner and
substantive and has both personal and non–personal reference.

• Which
way
shall we go?

• Which
relatives
would you invite to your wedding?

• Which
is
more dangerous for your health: alcohol or tobacco?

Before
another determiner (the,
my, these) or
a pronoun, the combination «which
of is
used:

• Which
of
these cars
is yours’?

• Which
of
the rings
do you like best?

• Which
of
your friends
are you bringing for the week end’.’

Who and
what
are
not normally used in this way in modern English.

As grammar
books claim, which
and
what
are
often possible, with little difference of meaning:

• Which/what
painters
have most influenced your technique?

• Which/what
is
the highest mountain in the world?

The use of
which, however,
is more restricted because it is selective in meaning. It implies
that the choice is made from a limited number of known persons or
things, while what
indicates
that the speaker refers to some indefinite group, not previously
specified. Compare:

• What
languages
are spoken in Switzerland?

• Which
language
do you know better: French or Spanish’.’

• What
do
you usually have for breakfast?

• Which
do
you prefer at breakfast: tea or coffee?

• What
magazines
does your daughter buy?

• Which
magazine
do you prefer: the Vogue or Harper’s Bazaar?

Note that
which
is
used with reference to a limited number of choices, as in the
following examples:

• Robert
turned his binoculars back on to Pilot Fish, then to Noble Star and
then to Golden Lady, John Chen’s mare. Which
one’s
got the form?

• That
woman knows nothing or she should be a perfect actress Which!

• Now
everything is complicated or simple. Which!

As a
result of this selective meaning, the answer to a ‘which
‘–question
can be more specific than that to a ‘what
‘–question:

• The
offer is good till Monday. – Which
Monday?
– Next Monday.

• Who’s
that girl? – Which
one?
– That one over there. However, this is not always so. Compare:

• «And
what about your club?» – «Eh, what
club?»
– «The private Chinese lunch club with forty three members.»

• «He’s
out for lunch at his club.» – «Which
club?»
She told him.

USAGE NOTES

(a) In
substantive use, who
(whom), not
which
is
more common with reference to people:

• Whom
do
I want to win? Dunross or Gornt?

• Who’re
you
dating now: Peter or Nick?

However,
which
can
be used to ask about people’s identity. Compare:

• Who’s
her
new boy friend? – He’s Nick Crown, a pop singer or something.

• Which
is
her new boy friend? – He’s the man by the window with a red beard.

(b) Note
the idiomatic use of
which:

• I
was
so confused I didn’t
know which
way
to turn.
[= had no idea about what to do]

• The
wind scattered the leaves every
which
way.
[= in all directions]

Ex.
45 Analyse the italicized pronouns and state whether they are
relative,
conjunctive or interrogative.

1.
What
was
the matter with the fellow that he looked so happy?
2. Maybe he just forgot what
it
was like to be young. 3.
Peter inquired sharply, «Who
are
you?» — «Do you mean who
or
what?»
4.
With a jerk the mechanism took hold and the
elevator started down. «Which
elevator
is this?» — «Num­ber
four.» 5. He shifted to the side window which
overlooked
the
stableyard, and whistled down to the dog Balthasar, who
lay
for ever under the clock tower. 6. What
do
I need her for?
7. He knew what
was
happening, of course. 8. «Allen, whose
apartment
is this?» she said quietly. «Mine,
if
I want it.»
— «But who
does
it belong to now?» 9. He was the architect
of this very house that
we
live in now. 10. He got up
from the window-seat and roamed in the big grey ghostly room,
whose
walls
were hung with silvered canvas. 11. What
passed
at their meeting was not recorded in detail. 12. «Isn’t she
Miss?» said Gavin to his sister, with a gesture towards Faith.
«Yes, that is what
you
would call me,» said the latter. 13. All that
was
left was to compose the letter. 14. He was very
unorthodox, which
frightened
them. 15. What
he
saw seemed
to satisfy him. 16. The first thing she asked him was what
he
thought of Avice Crichton. 17. He looked very well-bred,
which
indeed
he was, and he had exquisite manners. 18.1
often think of those people who
used
to cross our thresh­old
and accept our hospitality. 19. When supper was over, Jane
and a small brother were sent down to a brook that
ran
at
the bottom of the meadow to fetch a pail of water for washing
up. 20. The candles were still burning in the din­ing-room
and the first thing he saw when he entered was what
remained
of the supper they had eaten, the two plates, the two cups and the
frying-pan in which
Mary
had cooked eggs and bacon.

Ex. 46 Insert a suitable
interrogative:

1. … is that extremely
tall boy over there? 2. … car is that? Is it yours? 3. … are
you going to open that tin with? 4. … is Mr. Clark? Is he a
doctor? 5. … books do you want to borrow? 6. … did you meet at
the university? 7. … time is it now? 8. … do you want me to
do? 9. … should I visit in Oxford? – I suppose you should visit
Aunt Martha. 10. … height is that mountain over there? 11. …
is Mr. Smith like? – Oh, he is very tall. 12. … is Mr. Smith
like? – Oh, he resembles his elder brother. 13. … will you send
your letter? 14. … person is that? 15. … will you submit your
petition?

Ex. 47 Insert a suitable
interrogative:

1. … swam across the river
Thames? 2. … of your sisters is going to Belgium? 3. … idea
was it? Was it yours by any chance? 4. … do you think about
modern music? 5. … should I submit my complaint? 6. … painting
is that? Is it Picasso’s? 7. … of the American heroes do you
admire most? 8. … said, “Whatever is it right?” 9. …
instrument do you prefer to buy, a piano or a violin? 10. … would
you take with you if you had to go to the mountains for two months?
11. … should we send our application forms? 12. … of Oscar
Wilde’s plays do you like best? 13. … cooked that excellent
meal? 14. … of the two plays do you like more? 15. … would you
like to drink, tea or coffee?

Ex. 48 Fill in
conjunctive, relative or interrogative pronouns:

1.
He changed the subject to the only one … could bring the majority
of them together. 2. It was Martin … was freer, not
Irene. 3. … am I speaking to, please? 4. I don’t care … he
says to me, I know I’m a real artist. 5. Everything … had
gone before, was like nothing. 6. … side of the bed do you
like, Mum? 7. They reached the street in … she lived. 8. There
was a suspicion of truth in … she said, and it made Philip
angry enough to answer … first came into his head. 9. She
bade him a casual good-night, … made him think he had
been dreaming. 10. The little … Martin said had not been
friendly. 11. «My shoulder hurts,» I said. «…
shoul­der?»
I touched my left shoulder. 12. He asked Mrs Otter whether
she knew … had become of her. 13. He was late, … made
her angry. 14. Good evening, Mrs Kennedy. And … of
you ladies is Mrs Wilkes? 15. Glutton put his hands over his
eyes so that he might concentrate his mind on … he wanted
to say. 16. The last thing … any of us wants is breakfast.
17. … was he like? 18. Please make up your mind, therefore,
whether you want me to decorate for you, or to retire,
… on the whole I should prefer to do. 19. And he began
considering … of those windows could be hers under the
green sunblinds. 20. He pulled the handkerchief off his face,
got up from the sofa on … he was lying, and went into the
dining-room. 21. … troubled him most was the useless-ness of
Fanny’s effort. 22. Mr Wells told me — and I quote his
own words — that it was one of the sweetest, kindest things
… was ever done for him. 23. … do you think I want tea
for?

Ex. 49 Insert the
appropriate defining relative pronouns where necessary:

1.
The dress … is lying on the floor is my best one. 2. I
met n friend … was at school with me. 3. That
is the girl… father is
a
burglar. 4. The parcel … I got is full of waste paper! 5. The
book …. I bought к
so stupid and dull that I cannot read it. 6. That
is the boy … we’ve just been speaking. 7. Is
that
the man … told you the truth? 8. The record … you lent me is
very
good. 9.
Thai is the girl … speaks
Japanese.
10. The
food … we had last night was awful. 11. That
is the man … house was damaged by an earthquake. 12. Thai
is the man … I presented my plans concerning our furniture
factоrу.
13. The New Zealand … our grand-fathers lived was so different
from the New Zealand in … we live nowadays
14. And
then a war broke out … lasted for a hundred years.

15.
The woman … I met yesterday turned oui
to
be my old friend.

Ex.
50 Insert the appropriate non-defining relative pronoun:

1.
The forest, … is full of mushrooms, was bought by my uncle. 2.
Mary,
… is my best friend, never want to visit me at my home. 3. Î.
Barbara,
… fiancé
is
abroad, enjoys herself very much. 4. The
speech,… was very exciting, was delivered by Professor Jones
himself 5. My
neighbour’s dog, … I never paid much attention, was awarded a
prize by un
international
jury last
Sunday. 6. My
sister’s house,… the roof had been leaking for years, was anally
repaired. 7. Mr.
Brown, … son is an excellent mathematician, is always cheated by
shop-assistants as he cannot .count
well. 8. The
dress,… I bought recently, is already out of fashion. 9. I
lost my umbrella, … was given to me by fiancé.
10. 10.
My dog,… leg was badly broken week ago, can’t run well. 11. The
dirty car, … you see over there; is my father’s.
12. My
sister,…. I hardly ever speak, gave me a beautiful gift.13. The
coat, … I paid quite a lot, is very ugly. 14. My
mother,… is
an
optimist, believes I will get married pretty soon. 15. A friend of
mine, … I admire very much, suggested we could meet next week and
discuss some important
matters.

Ex. 51 Insert the
appropriate relative pronoun where necessary:

1.
I can lend you two records, … are very good. 2. Do you see this
table … legs must have been broken a long time ago. 3. This
is the address … I sent my complaints. 4. The letter… I got
recently contains some bad news. 5. He
was not only late,… annoyed us, but he was also badly dressed on
such an occasion. 6. The
poor man,… leg was badly broken, was taken to hospital. 7. Mr.
Smith,… son was killed during World War II, often speaks about the
war. 8. When I was speaking to Tom…. is a friend of mine, be
suddenly fainted. 9. The policeman,… I had never seen before,
insisted that he knew me. 10. This
is the girl… I will never speak again. 11. The gentleman … I saw
at a restaurant yesterday was a famous musician. 12:
My cousin, … every rich, never gives anything to the poor.
13. My
dog, … is a spaniel, doesn’t like meat. 14. Prof.
Smith,… is an erudite, never remembers historical dates. 15. My
sister, … you met yesterday, liked you very much.

Ex.
52 Fill the gaps in these sentences with appropriate relative
pronouns. There may be more than one possible
answer:

1.
The 10.05 from London Liverpool Street to Norwich
is
…… due to arrive at platform I will call
at Colchester, Ipswich and Norwich. 2.
We’ll
have the party next Friday ……
is
the day …… he
comes out of hospital. 3. The
golden eagle …… eggs are stolen unscrupulous
collectors is now an endangered species.
4.
What’s
the name of the girl ……
got
married to Chris
Small? Is it Louise? 5.
Can
you think of any reason ……
he
might have done it? 6. I
don’t know of any restaurants ……
you
can get
a decent meal for under £15 nowadays. Do you? 7.
What’s
the name of that singer ……
record
was number
1 last month? The one …… writes
his own
songs. 8.
Rangers’ second goal …… was
scored in the final
minutes of the game won them the cup. 9.
Sally’s
going out with someone …… she
met at Jason’s
party. 10. Not surprisingly, we never got back the things ……
we’d
reported stolen. 11. We’ll
be staying at the Seaview Hotel
…… we stayed
last year. 12.
The
best time to go to Scotland is June …… the
nights
are longer and the weather is warmer. 13.
I’ve
decided I don’t like the shoes …… I bought on Saturday. I’m
going to take them back. 14.
The
Hilton is expensive …… is
what you’d expect.
After all it is a 5-star hotel.

Ex. 53 Omit the relative
pronouns where possible:

1.
He returned to his desk and dialled a number which he knew
by heart. 2.1 wrote other novels which were published, and
I write plays. 3. His eyes, which were hot and inquisitive, looked
from Martin to me. 4. In the dark and the cold of the morning
they drove out the country road through the mist that
hung heavy over the flat. 5. He was the architect of this very
house that we live in now. 6. The telephone, which was on
a side table beside Guy’s chair, mercifully rang out. 7. Rare­ly,
a plane leaf floated down, in an autumnal air that was at the
same time exhilarating and sad. 8. All that I could then do
was sit back and wait. 9. He lost himself in a maze of thoughts
that were rendered vague by his lack of words to express
them. 10. He offered a cigarette which the pilot re­fused.
11. It was the first time that I had heard John talk about
Jack. 12. She came into a room in which a child was sleeping
and drew the curtains. 13. Now his wife sat with her
head forward on her hands that rested on the table. 14.
Often they discussed things about which he knew nothing.

3

82

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81

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80

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79

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78

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77

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76

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75

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74

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73

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72

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71

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70

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69

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68

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67

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66

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65

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64

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63

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62

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61

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60

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59

27

58

28

57

29

56

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55

31

54

32

53

33

52

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51

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50

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49

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48

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47

39

46

40

45

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44

42

43